Table Of Content

Fuel Economy in Road Vehicles Powered by Spark Ignition Engines Fuel Economy in Road Vehicles Powered by Spark Ignition Engines Edited by John C. Hilliard Combustion and Fuel Research, Inc. Ann Arbor, Michigan and George S. Springer Stanford University Stanford, California Springer Science+Business Media, LLC Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry under title: Fuel economy in road vehicles powered by spark ignition engines. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Automobiles—Fuel consumption—Addresses, essays, lectures. 2. Internal combustion engines, Spark ignition—Fuel consumption—Addresses, essays, lec tures. I. Hilliard, John C, 1951- . II. Springer, George S. TL151.6.F85 1984 629.2'53 84-1932 ISBN 978-1-4899-2279-3 ISBN 978-1-4899-2279-3 ISBN 978-1-4899-2277-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-2277-9 © 1984 by Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1984 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1984 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher Contributors T. W. ASMUS. Advanced Power Plant Engineering, Chrysler Corporation, Highland Park, Michigan CLAUS BORGNAKKE • Automotive Laboratory, University ofM ichigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan S. K. CLARK. Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Me chanics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan DAV ID COLE • Office for the study of Automotive Transportation, Trans portation Research Institute, University ofM ichigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan J. T. KUMMER. Chemical Research Laboratory, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan KENNETH C. LUDEMA • Department of Mechanical Engineering and Ap plied Mechanics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan RUDOLF MALY • Institut for Physikalische Elektronik, University of StuU gart, Federal Republic of Germany THOMAS MOREL • Integral Technologies Incorporated, Westmont, Illinois W. B. RIBBENS • Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Uni versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan GEORGE S. SPRINGER • Department ofA eronautics and Astronautics, Stan ford University, Stanford, California THOMAS R. STOCKTON. Scientific Research Laboratories, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan R. W. WHEELER. Atlantic Research Associates, Tunbridge Wells, Kent, England v Preface Concern about the reduced availability and the increased cost of petroleum fuels prompted great efforts in recent years to reduce the fuel consumption of auto mobiles. The ongoing efforts to reduce fuel consumption have addressed many relevant factors, including increased engine performance, reduced friction, use of lightweight materials, and reduced aerodynamic drag. The results of the investigations assessing the various factors affecting fuel economy have been published in journals, conference proceedings, and in company and government reports. This proliferation of technical information makes it difficult for workers to keep abreast of aU developments. The material presented in this book brings together in a single volume much of the relevant materials, summarizes many of the state-of-the-art theories and data, and provides extensive lists of references. Thus, it is hoped that this book will be a useful reference for specialists and practicing engineers interested in the fuel economy of automobiles. J. C. HILLIARD o. S. SPRINGER vii CONTENTS 1. AUTOMOTIVE FUEL ECONOMY David Cole I. Introduction and Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 n. Fuel Economy Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 A. Engine................................................... 11 B. Drive Train. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 C. Vehicle Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 D. Operating Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 E. Test Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2. FUEL ECONOMY AND EMISSIONS J. T. Kummer I. Introduction .................................................. . 35 n. Emission Regulations .......................................... . 36 m. General Considerations ......................................... . 39 lV. Compression Ratio, Economy, and Emissions ...................... . 44 V. Carbon Monoxide Emissions .................................... . 48 VI. Nitric Oxide Emissions ......................................... . 50 VIT. Hydrocarbon Emissions ........................................ . 60 vm. Postengine Exhaust Treatment for Emission Control ................. . 68 A. Thermal Reactors ......................................... . 68 B. Catalytic Exhaust Gas Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 IX. Summary: Passenger Cars ....................................... 82 X. Truck Emissions and Fuel Economy-Gasoline-Powered Vehicles. . . . . . 85 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 3. SPARK IGNITION: ITS PHYSICS AND EFFECT ON THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION PROCESS Rudolf Maly I. Introduction................................................... 91 n. Generalized Properties of Ignition Sparks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Ix x Contents A. Electrical Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 B. Discharge Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 C. Energy-Transfer Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 105 D. Inflammation by Discharge Plasmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 108 E. Discharge Mode and Flame Propagation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 113 m. Ignition Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 125 A. Inflammation.............................................. 125 B. Flame Propagation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 128 C. Ignition Criteria ..... :.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 136 IV. Engine Validation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 137 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 145 4. EFFECTS OF VALVE EVENTS ON ENGINE OPERATION T. W. Asmus I. Introduction................................................... 149 n. Background................................................... 150 m. Perspectives on Valve Events and Engine Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 154 IV. Valve Event Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155 A. General Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155 B. Discussion of Valve Timing ................................. 162 C. Discussion of Valve Lift and Valve Sizes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166 V. Valve Event Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 167 A. Overview................................................. 167 B. The Idle Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 168 C. WOT Perfonnance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 172 D. Synopsis................................................. 176 VI. Vehicle Consequences of Valve Event Optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 177 A. Idle Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 178 B. Idle Fuel Consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 179 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 180 5. FLAME PROPAGATION AND HEAT-TRANSFER EFFECTS IN SPARK IGNITION ENGINES Claus Borgnakke I. Introduction................................................... 183 II. Modes of Combustion .......................................... 184 m. Ignition and Flame Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 185 IV. Mathematical Models for the Initial Flame. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 191 Contents xi Vo Fully Developed Flame Propagation 195 0000000000000000000000000000000 VI. Models for the Turbulent Flame 200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 VITo Heat Transfer 208 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 References 220 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6. ABNORMAL COMBUSTION EFFECTS ON ECONOMY R. W. Wheeler I. Introduction and Historical Background 225 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ao Introduction 225 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 B Relationship between Preignition and Knock 226 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ITo Definition and Measurement of Abnormal Combustion 231 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ao Definition of Terms 231 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 B Detection and Measurement of Knock and Preignition 232 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Co Rating Fuels 234 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 Do Engine Parameters and Knock 235 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 llio Knock Theories 239 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ao End Gas 240 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 B Detonation Theory 240 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Co Autoignition Theory of Knock 241 0000000000000000000000000000000 Do Engine End Gas and Autoignition Tests 243 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Eo Antiknock Action 247 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Fo Summary 250 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 IV Running-On or After-Running 250 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 V Preignition and Postignition 251 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ao General Remarks 251 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 B Effect of Engine-Operating Parameters 252 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Co Preigniter Surface Effects 253 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Do Preignition Tendency of Fuels 254 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Eo Practical Engine Systems for Knock Reduction 256 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 VI. General Conclusions 268 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 References 269 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7. MECHANICAL FRICTION AND LUBRICATION IN AUTOMOBILES Kenneth C. Ludema I. Introduction 277 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 llo Principles of Lubrication and Wear 278 00000000000000000000000000000000 ITI. Friction in Automotive Components 285 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 IV Friction in Engines 286 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 V Fuel Economy 288 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 References 289 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 xii Contents 8. TIRE ROLLING RESISTANCE AND VEHICLE FUEL ECONOMY S. K. Clark I. Introduction................................................... 291 II. Fundamentals of Tire RoIling Resistance ........................... 292 m. Test Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 294 A. Trailer Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 295 B. Fuel Consumption ......................................... 295 C. Coast-Down Tests ......................................... 295 IV. Influence of Tire Construction Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 296 A. Tire Type ................................................ 296 B. Tire Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 296 C. Cord Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 300 D. Polymer.................................................. 300 V. Effect of Operating Variables .................................... 301 VI. Current Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 306 VII. Future Status. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 306 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 307 9. PROPERTIES OF SHEET MOLDING COMPOUNDS George S. Springer I. Introduction................................................... 309 II. Materials and Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 311 m. Static Properties ............................................... 311 A. Tensile Strength and Modulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 311 B. Compression Strength and Modulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 315 C. Shear Strength and Shear Modulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 317 D. Flexural Strength and Modulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 318 E. Notch Sensitivity .......................................... 320 IV. Fatigue....................................................... 320 V. Creep........................................................ 324 VI. Adhesive-Bonded Single-Lap Joints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 324 A. Moisture Absorption Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 326 B. Lap Shear Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 326 C. Fatigue .................................................. 327 D. Creep.................................................... 327 VII. Vibration Damping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 329 vm. Dynamic Impact ............................................... 331 IX. Moisture Absorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 332 X. Thermal Expansion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 332 XI. Concluding Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 333 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 333