FRANCIS BACON'S ESSAYS AS POPULAR ENLIGHTENMENT By Erin Alexandra Dolgoy A ...

365 Pages·2013·1.82 MB·English

PROPAGANDA OF PROGRESS:
FRANCIS BACON’S ESSAYS AS POPULAR ENLIGHTENMENT

By

Erin Alexandra Dolgoy

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

Political Science – Doctor of Philosopy

2013
ABSTRACT

PROPAGANDA OF PROGRESS:
FRANCIS BACON’S ESSAYS AS POPULAR ENLIGHTENMENT

By

Erin Alexandra Dolgoy

Francis Bacon (1561-1626 CE) is acknowledged as a founder of modernity and an
architect of the liberal west. Bacon’s most profound contribution to our political and intellectual
history is his idea of progress and its relationship to science: he believed that mankind could
conquer nature and command the human condition. In order to relieve man’s estate, Bacon
recommends a complete reconstruction of all human knowledge—including knowledge about
nature, human nature, religion, and politics. His synoptic project, the Great Instauration,
involves a radical shift in regnant opinion that re-educates and prepares individuals to live in a
world of rapid and potentially limitless progress.
This dissertation is a close, exegetical analysis of a selection of essays from the 1625 CE
English edition of Bacon’s Essays. As this dissertation shows, Bacon’s Essays is a primer:
Bacon has designed the text to help us better understand human nature, religion, and politics and
thereby prepare us for the age of progress. Throughout this analysis, a chiasmic reading of the
text is applied in order to examine three primary themes: human nature, religion, and politics.
Copyright by
ERIN ALEXANDRA DOLGOY
2013
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I owe special thanks to Jerry Weinberger, my supervisor, who challenged my ideas, read
and reread my drafts, and believed in the project; Steven Kautz, who entertained obscure
questions about punctuation and whose support and guidance have been indispensable
throughout this degree; and both Arthur Melzer and M. Richard Zinman, who have taught me to
ask more coherent questions, posit more refined answers, and understand the tradition better.
Limitless thanks are owed to the faculty, staff, and graduate students in the Political
Science Department at MSU: Melinda Gann Hall, Richard Hula, and Ani Sarkissian, who
supported me when times were tough; Saundra Schneider, who ensured that I finished first year;
Charles W. Ostrom, my teaching mentor, who provided pedagogic advice, teaching
opportunities, and invaluable encouragement; Karen Battin, Rhonda Burns, and Sarah Krause,
who mediated a complex bureaucracy; and my graduate student colleagues—comrades in
arms—who have made graduate school less arduous and far more enjoyable than I had expected.
Many thanks to Paul Burton, Rebecca Dolgoy, Natalie Elliot, Laura Field, Brad Jackson,
Rory McKeown, and Rebecca Papanicolas for their friendship and intellectual courage.
Particular thanks to Heidi Studer, who showed me this path and gave me a push. Words cannot
express my gratitude to my family: Mark, Naomi, and Noah Dolgoy for reminding me what is
important and for the pep talks; and Francie Ratner for her exacting criticism, profound insight,
meticulous editing, and constant enthusiasm—without her, this project would have been less fun.
Last, I would like to acknowledge the Earhart Foundation and the Symposium on
Science, Reason, and Modern Democracy for their generous support during this degree, as well
as the Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies at Victoria University in the University
of Toronto for their research support this past year.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................ 1
THE INSTAURATION AND THE IDOLS OF THE MIND ......................................................................... 1
THE REFORM OF REGNANT OPINION ............................................................................................... 6
PUBLICATION HISTORY AND DEDICATORY LETTERS .................................................................... 11
A PRIMER: SCHOLARLY CONSIDERATIONS AND CHIASMIC STRUCTURE ....................................... 14
THE CONTRIBUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF THIS DISSERTATION .................................................. 23

CHAPTER ONE: HUMAN NATURE AND MUNDANE CONCERNS ............................. 27
ESSAY ONE, “OF TRUTH”: THE SOVEREIGN GOOD ....................................................................... 30
Part I: What is Truth? ....................................................................................................... 30
Part II: The Truth of Civil Business ................................................................................. 43
ESSAY TWO, “OF DEATH”: NO SUCH TERRIBLE ENEMY ............................................................... 49
Part I: The Fear of Death ................................................................................................. 49
Part II: Suicide and Honorable Death .............................................................................. 53
Part III: Death and Fame .................................................................................................. 56
ESSAY THREE, “OF UNITY IN RELIGION”: RELIGION, FAITH, AND THE POWER OF UNITY ............. 58
Part I: The Chief Band ..................................................................................................... 58
Part II: The Fruits of Religion .......................................................................................... 60
Part III: The Bounds of Religion ..................................................................................... 67
Part IV: The Means to Religious Unity ........................................................................... 74
ESSAY FOUR, “OF REVENGE”: JUSTICE, SELF-LOVE, AND OUR DESIRES FOR REVENGE ................ 78
Part I: Justice as Vengeance ............................................................................................. 79
Part II: Two Types of Revenge and Two Types of Vengeance Seekers ......................... 82
Part III: Revenge and Friends .......................................................................................... 84
Part IV: Public Revenges ................................................................................................. 87
ESSAY FIFTY-FIVE, “OF HONOUR AND REPUTATION”: HONOR, REPUTATION, AND
REVENGE ...................................................................................................................................... 90
Part I: Honor Defined....................................................................................................... 90
Part II: Practical Advice for the Achievement of Honor and Reputation ........................ 92
Part III: The Types of Men Who Obtain Honor .............................................................. 96
ESSAY FIFTY-SIX, “OF JUDICATURE”: HUMAN JUSTICE AND LAW ............................................. 100
Part I: The Role of Judges .............................................................................................. 101
Part II: Judicial Accountability ...................................................................................... 104
Part III: The Perfectly Just Judge ................................................................................... 112
ESSAY FIFTY-SEVEN, “OF ANGER”: MASTERY AND MODERATION ............................................ 113
Part I: To Ameliorate Anger .......................................................................................... 115
Part II: To Repress Anger .............................................................................................. 117
Part III: Anger in Others ................................................................................................ 121
ESSAY FIFTY-EIGHT, “OF VICISSITUDE OF THINGS”: THE NATURE OF FLUX AND THE PROBLEM
WITH TRUTH ............................................................................................................................... 123
Part I: Truth and Change ................................................................................................ 124
Part II: Vicissitudes of Religion ..................................................................................... 128
Part III: Changes in War ................................................................................................ 131
Part IV: Change and Learning ....................................................................................... 136
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SUMMARY: CHIASMUS AND CONTENT.. ...................................................................................... 138
CHAPTER TWO: BACON’S CRITIQUE OF RELIGION. ............................................... 141
WHY RELIGION MATTERS: THE RULING ORBS. .......................................................................... 144
Part I: Religion and the Idols. ........................................................................................ 145
Part II: A Brief History of Religion in Britain. .............................................................. 148
Part III: Scholarly Accounts of Bacon and Religion. .................................................... 154
PREPARING THE PATH: RELIGION IN THE FIRST FOUR ESSAYS ................................................... .159
Part I: Christ’s Divinity. ................................................................................................. 159
Part II: Eschatological Concerns. ................................................................................... 164
Part III: Religious Unity................................................................................................. 165
ESSAY THIRTEEN, “OF GOODNESSE AND GOODNESSE OF NATURE”: THE ERRORS OF HUMAN
NATURE. ..................................................................................................................................... 171
Part I: Goodness Defined: Habit and Inclination. .......................................................... 172
Part II: The Exception that Proves the Rule. .................................................................. 176
Part III: Errors and Excesses. ......................................................................................... 177
Part IV: A Disinclination Towards Goodness. .............................................................. 182
Part V: Signs of Goodness. ............................................................................................ 183
ESSAY SIXTEEN, “OF ATHEISME”: WHAT THE FOOL HATH SAID. ............................................... 185
Part I: The Problem of Providence................................................................................. 187
Part II: Religion and Politics. ......................................................................................... 199
ESSAY SEVENTEEN, “OF SUPERSTITION”: WHEN WISE MEN FOLLOW FOOLS. ........................... 205
Part I: Atheism or Superstition. ..................................................................................... 206
Part II: The Political Implications of Superstition. ........................................................ 210
Part III: An Attack on the Schoolmen ............................................................................ 211
Part IV: Causes of Superstition. ..................................................................................... 212
ESSAY THIRTY-FIVE, “OF PROPHECY”: IDLE AND CRAFTY BRAINES. ......................................... 214
SUMMARY: CHARITY, PRUDENCE, AND TRUTH. .......................................................................... 217

CHAPTER THREE: THE PERILS OF POLITICAL RULE ............................................. 219
ESSAY ELEVEN, “OF GREAT PLACE”: STRANGERS TO THEMSELVES.. ........................................ 221
Part I: Thrice Servants and the Myth of Power.............................................................. 221
Part II: Practical Advice for Men of Place. .................................................................... 229
Part III: Another Man, The Demands of Place. ............................................................. 239
ESSAY NINETEEN, “OF EMPIRE”: THE PERILS AND SHADOWS OF KINGSHIP ................................ .240
Part I: The Quality or Temper of Kings. ........................................................................ 242
Part II: The Quality or Temper of Empire. .................................................................... 252
Part III: External Dangers to the King. .......................................................................... 257
Part IV: Execution of the Office. ................................................................................... 265
ESSAY TWENTY-NINE, “OF THE TRUE GREATNESSE OF KINGDOMES AND ESTATES”:
PREPAREDNESS FOR WAR. .......................................................................................................... 267
Part I: Political Fiddling: Bacon’s Themistocles. .......................................................... 270
Part II: Mustard Seeds and Monarchies: What Constitutes Greatness?. ........................ 283
Part III: Ten Ordinances for Greatness.. ........................................................................ 286
Part IV: Summary. ......................................................................................................... 325
SUMMARY: PROGRESS AND MILITARY PREPAREDNESS.. ............................................................ 326
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CONCLUSION. ....................................................................................................................... 330
BACON’S CRITIQUE. .................................................................................................................... 334
BACON AND MACHIAVELLI. ........................................................................................................ 340
ESSAYS AND THE INSTAURATION: A BENEVOLENT PROJECT. ....................................................... 343

BIBLIOGRAPHY. ................................................................................................................... 347

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INTRODUCTION
We are children of progress: weaned on modern science, reared to require and desire
technological innovation, and educated to believe that we have the authority and foresight to
improve our environment and ourselves. The idea of progress—premised on modern science,
dependent on technological innovations, and executed by human designs—defines the liberal
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west. Doubts about progress have led critics of modernity to question both the tangible effects
of technological progress and the underlying assumptions that have made progress possible. If
we are to make sense of the critiques, we must first understand the fundamental worldview
embedded in modernity and technology. This dissertation investigates the origins of that
worldview by returning to its originator’s seminal work of soul-craft: Francis Bacon’s Essays.
THE INSTAURATION AND THE IDOLS OF THE MIND
Francis Bacon (1561-1626 CE), the seventeenth-century CE English judge, legal theorist,
Member of Parliament, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, Lord Chancellor of England, father of
science, and philosopher, is the first and most influential theoretician and propagandist of the
idea of progress. He lived during a time of tumult, punctuated by religious upheavals. The

1

There is a substantial and interdisciplinary literature on the relationships amongst science,
technology, and society. Braun argues, “The quest for Progress is the most characteristic feature
of our time; indeed, progress is at the pinnacle of our collective desires.” Jaroszynski discusses
the controversial nature of progress from a distinctly religious perspective. Other scholars claim
that the most pressing concern in liberal democratic politics is technology. Feenberg, Melzer,
and Studer discuss the importance of the question of technology. See Ernest Braun, Futile
Progress: Technology's Empty Promise (London, UK: Earthscan Publications Limited, 1995), 1;
Andrew Feenberg, Questioning Technology (New York, NY: Routledge, 1999), viii; Piotr
Jaroszynski, Science in Culture, trans. Hugh McDonald (New York, NY: Rudopi, 2007), 220-32;
Arthur M. Melzer, “The Problem with the ‘Problem of Technology’,” in Technology in the
Western Political Tradition, ed. Arthur M. Melzer, Jerry Weinberger, and M. Richard Zinman
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), 287-321; Heidi Doris Studer, ‘“Grapes Ill-
Trodden…’ Francis Bacon and the Wisdom of the Ancients” (PhD diss., University of Toronto,
1992), 1; and Heidi D. Studer, “Francis Bacon on the Political Dangers of Scientific Progress,”
Canadian Journal of Political Science 31.2 (June 1998): 219-20.
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Reformation caused schisms in European Christendom, including in Britain: the Church of
England separated from the Catholic Church twenty years prior to Bacon’s birth; after such a
precedent, each successive English monarch attempted to reconstitute religion in England to suit
his or her own preferences and beliefs. Subject to the whims of the ruling monarch, the politics
of Bacon’s day was mired in intrigue and danger. Bacon’s political career is marked by shining
successes and tragic disgrace: in 1616 CE, he is appointed to the Privy Council; in 1617 CE, he
is appointed Lord Keeper of the Great Seal; in 1618 CE, he is appointed Lord Chancellor of
England, one of the most powerful political positions in England; in 1621 CE, however, Bacon is
2
accused of accepting bribes and impeached by Parliament, fined, and banned from Court.
Bacon called his synoptic project—his life’s work—the Great Instauration. In his
scientific writings—which include Advancement of Learning, New Organon, and Great
Instauration—Bacon argues that the new science of nature and technological project represents a
new type of knowledge: knowledge about nature coupled with the power to alter nature. The
3
goal of the Instauration is to conquer nature for the relief of man’s estate. The plan requires “a
total reconstruction of sciences, arts, and all human knowledge raised upon the proper
4 5
foundation,” in the name “of human utility and human power.” Therefore, in Bacon’s
estimation, modern science—unlike the useless, passive contemplation of nature for personal

2

There are a number of excellent biographies on Francis Bacon’s life. Examples include Joel J.
Epstein, Francis Bacon: a political biography (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1977); Lisa
Jardine and Alan Stewart, Hostage to Fortune: The Troubled Life of Francis Bacon (London,
UK: Victor Gollancz, 1998); and Nieves Mathews, Francis Bacon: The History of a Character
Assassination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996).
3

Francis Bacon, The Advancement of Learning, ed. G. W. Kitchen and intro. Jerry Weinberger
(Philadelphia, PA: Paul Dry Books, 2001), I.v.11.
4

Francis Bacon, New Atlantis and The Great Instauration, ed. and intro. Jerry Weinberger
(Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson Inc., 1989), 21.
5
Bacon, Instauration, 16.
2
interest encouraged by premodern or ancient science—is the useful, active manipulation of
nature for public benefit.
Misemployment of the human intellect, misassessment of human power, and
misunderstanding of our greatest good, Bacon argues, are the greatest impediments to the
mastery of nature. The defects of the human intellect that prevent our rational capacities are
divided, by Bacon, into four illusions—Idols of the Tribe, Idols of the Cave, Idols of the
Marketplace, and Idols of the Theatre. In Great Instauration, Bacon separates these Idols into
two types. The Idols of the Tribe and the Idols of the Cave are innate; that is, they “Exis[t] in a
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person (or organism) from birth” and are “inborn, native, natural.” As such, “they cannot be
7
eradicated at all.” The Idols of the Marketplace and the Idols of the Theatre are “adventitious”;
that is, they “Com[e] from outside or from an external source…rather than by design or inherent
8

nature”: these Idols enter the mind “either from the doctrine or sects of philosophers, or from
9 10
perverse rules of demonstration.” As such, they “are hard to eradicate.” Our intellectual
failures, as Bacon understands them, are the result of both our biology and our experience.
Since the Idols of the Tribe and of the Cave cannot be excised, “All that can be done is to
11

point them out, so that…the mind can be marked and reproved.” As Bacon explains, “The

6
“innate, adj.” The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online. Oxford University
Press. May 13, 2013, http://www.oed.com: “State or condition in general, whether material or
moral, bodily, or mental.” A passage from another of Bacon’s texts is cited in the OED as an
example of this usage.
7
Bacon, Instauration, 25.
8
“adventitious, adj.” OED, May 12, 2013. Bacon is not cited in the OED as an example of this
usage.
9

Bacon, Instauration, 25.
10

Ibid.
11
Ibid.
3