Fowler's Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Volume 8 PDF
Preview Fowler's Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Volume 8
R. Eric Miller, DVM, DACZM Senior Vice President for Zoological Operations Director, WildCare Institute Saint Louis Zoo Forest Park St. Louis, Missouri; Adjunct Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery College of Veterinary Medicine University of Missouri Columbia, Missouri Murray E. Fowler, DVM, DACZM, DACVIM, DABVT Professor Emeritus, Zoological Medicine School of Veterinary Medicine University of California, Davis Davis, California 3251 Riverport Lane St. Louis, Missouri 63043 FOWLER’S ZOO AND WILD ANIMAL MEDICINE ISBN: 978-1-4557-7397-8 Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008, 2003, 1999, 1993, 1986, 1978 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. 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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fowler’s zoo and wild animal medicine / [edited by] R. Eric Miller, Murray Fowler.—8. p. ; cm. Zoo and wild animal medicine Preceded by Fowler’s zoo and wild animal medicine / R. Eric Miller, Murray Fowler. c2012. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978–1–4557–7397–8 (hardcover) I. Miller, R. Eric, editor. II. Fowler, Murray E., editor. III. Title: Zoo and wild animal medicine. [DNLM: 1. Animals, Zoo. 2. Animals, Wild. 3. Veterinary Medicine. SF 996] SF996 636.089—dc23 2014008396 Senior Vice President, Content: Loren Wilson Content Strategy Director: Penny Rudolph Content Development Specialist: Brandi Graham Publishing Services Manager: Catherine Jackson Senior Project Manager: Rachel E. McMullen Designer: Margaret Reid Printed in China Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contributors Mary Agnew, PhD Ray L. Ball, DVM P. Walter Bravo, DVM, MS, PhD Program Coordinator Senior Veterinarian/Director of Medical Carrera Profesional de Medicina AZA Wildlife Contraception Center Sciences Veterinaria, Canchis Saint Louis Zoo Tampa’s Lowry Park Zoo Universidad Nacional San Antonio Abad St. Louis, Missouri Tampa, Florida Cusco, Peru Contraception Recent Updates for Antemortem Tuberculosis Camelidae Diagnostics in Zoo Animals Roberto F. Aguilar, DVM, DECZM Elizabeth L. Buckles, DVM, PhD, (Zoo Health Management) Katrin Baumgautner, DrMedVet DACVP Senior Practicing Veterinarian in Wildlife Specialist in Zoo and Wildlife Medicine Clinical Associate Professor Health Specialist in animal welfare Department of Biomedical Sciences Veterinary Teaching Hospital Zoo Nuremberg College of Veterinary Medicine Massey University Nuremberg, Germany Cornell University Palmerston North, New Zealand Avian Deflighting Techniques Ithaca, New York Xenarthra Chiroptera (Bats) Hugues Beaufrère, DVM, PhD, Jack L. Allen, DVM, DACZM DABVP(Avian), DECZM(Avian) Peter E. Buss, BVSc, MMedVet (fer) Senior Veterinarian Avian and Exotic Veterinarian Veterinary Senior Manager Veterinary Services Health Sciences Center, Clinical Studies Veterinary Wildlife Services San Diego Zoo Safari Park Ontario Veterinary College Kruger National Park Escondido, California University of Guelph South African National Parks Equidae Guelph, Ontario, Canada Mpumalanga, South Africa Gruiformes (Cranes, Limpkins, Rails, Tubulidentata (Aardvark) Cheryl Asa, BA, MS, PhD Gallinules, Coots, Bustards) Rhinoceridae (Rhinoceroses) Adjunct Professor Department of Biology R. Avery Bennett, DVM, DACVS Paul P. Calle, VMD, DACZM Saint Louis University Lauderdale Veterinary Specialists Chief Veterinarian & Director Saint Louis, Missouri Fort Lauderdale, Florida Zoological Health Program Director of Research Avian Deflighting Techniques Wildlife Conservation Society AZA Wildlife Contraception Center Bronx, New York Research Department Mads F. Bertelsen, DVM, DVSc, New World and Old World Monkeys Saint Louis Zoo DACZM, DECZM (Zoo Health Saint Louis, Missouri Management) Norin Chai, DVM, MSc, MSc Vet, PhD Contraception Associate Veterinarian Head Vet, Deputy Director Center for Zoo and Wild Animal Health Ménagerie du Jardin des Plantes Kay A. Backues, DVM, DACZM Copenhagen Zoo Département des Jardins Botaniques et Director of Animal Health Frederiksberg, Denmark Zoologiques Veterinary Health Department Giraffidae Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle Tulsa Zoo Paris, France Tulsa, Oklahoma Tiffany Blackett, BVetMed, MRCVS Anurans Adjunct Professor Northamptonshire, United Kingdom Lab Animal and Exotic Pet Medicine Wildpro Multimedia Jason Shih-Chien Chin, DVM, MS Tulsa Community College Director Tulsa, Oklahoma Rosemary J. Booth, BVSc Taipei Zoo Adjunct Professor Director President Zoo-Exotic Medicine Service Wild Animals Solutions Taiwan Aquarium and Zoo Association Oklahoma State University Gold Coast Taipei, Taiwan Stillwater, Oklahoma Queensland, Australia Pholidota Anseriformes Caprimulgiformes (Nightjars and Allies) Leigh Ann Clayton, DVM, DABVP Eric J. Baitchman, DVM, DACZM Debra Bourne, MA, VetMB, PhD, (Avian) Director of Veterinary Services MRCVS Director Zoo New England Senior Veterinary Editor Department of Animal Health Boston, Massachusetts Wildlife Information Network National Aquarium Caudata (Urodela): Tailed Amphibians East Midland Zoological Society, Baltimore, Maryland Atherstone, Caecilians Kent, Great Britain Wildpro Multimedia iii iv Contributors Darin M. Collins, DVM Mary Duncan, BVMS, PhD, DACVP, Hanno Gerritsmann, DTzT Director of Animal Health Programs MRCVS Veterinarian Animal Health Department Staff Pathologist Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology Woodland Park Zoo Saint Louis Zoo Department of Integrative Biology and Seattle, Washington St. Louis, Missouri Evolution Ursidae Gout in Exotic Animals University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna Vienna, Austria Juan Cornejo, PhD Jesus Fernandez-Moran, DVM, PhD Update on Remote Delivery and Restraint Bird Curator President, European Association for Equipment Loro Parque Fundacion Aquatic Mammals Santa Cruz De Tenerife Area, Spain Fundación Parques Reunidos Jennifer E. Graham, DVM, DABVP Psittaciformes Casa de campo (Avian/Exotic Companion Mammal), Zoo Madrid-Parques, Reunidos DACZM Jennifer D’Agostino, DVM, DACZM Madrid, Spain Assistant Professor of Zoological Director of Veterinary Services Mustelidae Companion Animal Medicine Oklahoma City Zoo Department of Clinical Sciences Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Edmund Flach, MA, VetMB, MSc, Tufts Cummings School of Veterinary Insectivores (Insectivora, Macroscelidea, DZooMed, DECZM (Zoo Health Medicine Scandentia) Management), MRCVS North Grafton, Massachusetts European Veterinary Specialist in Lagomorpha (Pikas, Rabbits, and Hares) Martine de Wit, DVM, DABVP (Avian) Zoological Medicine (Zoo Health Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Management) Zoltan S. Gyimesi, DVM Commission Zoo and Wildlife Pathologist Associate Veterinarian Fish and Wildlife Research Institute Zoological Society of London Louisville Zoological Garden Marine Mammal Pathobiology Laboratory London, United Kingdom Louisville, Kentucky St. Petersburg, Florida Tragulidae, Moschidae, and Cervidae Columbiformes Sirenia Joseph P. Flanagan, DVM J. Jill Heatley, DVM, MS Sharon L. Deem, DVM, PhD, DACZM Director of Veterinary Services Associate Professor Adjunct Associate Professor Houston Zoo, Inc. Veterinary Small Animal Clinical Sciences Biology Houston, Texas Department of College of Veterinary University of Missouri-Saint Louis Chelonians (Turtles, Tortoises) Medicine and Biomedical Sciences Director Texas A&M University Institute for Conservation Medicine Gregory J. Fleming, DVM, DACZM† College Station, Texas Saint Louis Zoo Veterinarian Psittaciformes St. Louis, Missouri Department of Animal Health Conservation Medicine to One Health: The Walt Disney Parks and Resorts Timothy A. Herman, BSc, MSc Role of Zoologic Veterinarians Bay Lake, Florida Herpetologist Crocodilians (Crocodiles, Alligators, Caiman, Department of Herpetology Gregory M. Dennis, MSc, JD† Gharial) Toledo Zoological Society Member Toledo, Ohio Leongatha Law, LLC d/b/a Veterinary Law Deidre K. Fontenot, DVM Caudata (Urodela): Tailed Amphibians Center Veterinarian Independence, Missouri Department in Animal Health Sonia Hernandez, BA, DVM, PhD, A Legal Overview for Zoological Medicine Disney’s Animals, Science and DACVIM Veterinarians Environment Assistant Professor Lake Buena Vista, Florida Graduate and Externship Coordinator Ryan S. DeVoe, DVM, MSpVM, Crocodilians (Crocodiles, Alligators, Caiman, College of Veterinary Medicine DACZM, DABVP Gharial) The University of Georgia Senior Veterinarian Athens, Georgia North Carolina Zoological Park, Kathryn C. Gamble, DVM, MS, Tapiridae Asheboro, North Carolina DACZM, DECZM (ZHM) Lacertilia (Lizards, Skinks, Geckos) and Dr Lester E Fisher Director of Veterinary Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt, DrMedVet, Amphisbaenids (Worm Lizards) Medicine HonFRCVS, DECZM (Zoo Health Veterinary Services Management) Christopher Dold, DVM Lincoln Park Zoo Professorial Fellow Vice President of Veterinary Services Chicago, Illinois Zoology Zoological Department Coraciiformes (Kingfishers, Motmots, University of Melbourne SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment Bee-Eaters, Hoopoes, Hornbills) Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Orlando, Florida Head, Professor Cetacea (Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises) Reproduction Management Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Genevieve Dumonceaux, DVM Research Clinical Veterinarian Berlin, Germany Animal Health Use of Ultrasonography in Wildlife Species Palm Beach Zoo West Palm Beach, Florida Trogoniformes †Deceased. Contributors v Clayton D. Hilton, MS, DVM Maya S. Kummrow, DrMedVet, DVSc, Mariano Makara, Dr.med.vet. DECVDI Vice-President of Animal Care & FTA Wildtiere (ZB Zootiere), Faculty of Veterinary Science Conservation DACZM, DECZM (Zoo Health The University of Sydney Birmingham Zoo, Inc. Management) Sydney, Australia Birmingham, Alabama Head of Veterinary Service, Vice Zoological The Use of Computed Tomography and Canidae Director Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Zoo Zoo Wuppertal Animals Peter Holz, BVSc, DVSc, MACVSc, Wuppertal, North Rhine-Westfalia, DACZM Germany Nicholas J. Masters, MA, VetMB, Veterinarian Ratites or Struthioniformes: Struthiones, MRCVS Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve Rheae, Cassuarii, Apteryges (Ostriches, Head of Veterinary Services Tharwa, A.C.T., Australia Rheas, Emus, Cassowaries, and Kiwis), Veterinary Department Monotremata (Echidna, Platypus) and Tinamiformes (Tinamous) Zoological Society of London London, United Kingdom Richard M. Jakob-Hoff, BVMS (Hons), Claude Lacasse, DVM, MANZCVS Tragulidae, Moschidae, and Cervidae MANZCVS (Wildlife Medicine) (Wildlife Medicine) Senior Veterinarian, Conservation and Veterinary Services Manager Stephanie McCain, DVM, DACZM Research Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital Veterinarian New Zealand Centre for Conservation Beerwah, Queensland, Australia Birmingham Zoo Medicine Falconiformes (Falcons, Hawks, Eagles, Kites, Birmingham, Alabama Auckland Zoo Harriers, Buzzards, Ospreys, Caracaras, Charadriiformes Auckland, New Zealand Secretary Birds, and Old World and New Sphenodontia: The Biology and Veterinary World Vultures) Tracey McNamara, DVM, DACVP Care of Tuatara Professor of Pathology Nadine Lamberski, DVM, DACZM College of Veterinary Medicine Donald L. Janssen, DVM, DACZM Associate Director Western University of Health Sciences Corporate Director, Animal Health Veterinary Services Pomona, California San Diego Zoo Global San Diego Zoo Safari Park Updates on West Nile Virus San Diego, California Escondido, California Equidae Felidae Thomas P. Meehan, DVM Guidelines for the Management of Zoonotic Adjunct Assistant Professor Diseases Alex Lecu, DVM Department of Veterinary Clinical Paris Zoo Medicine Janis Ott Joslin, BA, DVM Paris, France College of Veterinary Medicine Professor, Zoo and Wildlife Medicine Recent Updates for Antemortem Tuberculosis University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine Diagnostics in Zoo Animals Urbana, Illinois; Western University of Health Sciences Vice President of Veterinary Services Pomona, California Brad A. Lock, DVM, DACZM Chicago Zoological Society New World and Old World Monkeys Curator Brookfield, Illinois Herpetology AAZV Guidelines for Zoo and Aquarium Jacques Kaandorp Zoo Atlanta Veterinary Medical Programs and Safaripark Beekse Bergen Atlanta, Georgia Veterinary Hospitals Hilvarenbeek, The Netherlands Ophidia (Snakes) The EAZWV and AAZV Infectious Diseases Leith C.R. Meyer, BSc (Hon), BVSc, Notebooks Linda J. Lowenstine, DVM, PhD, PhD DACVP Paraclinical Science Cornelia J. Ketz-Riley, DrMedVet, DVM, Professor Emeritus University of Pretoria, Faculty of DACZM Department of Pathology, Immunology and Veterinary Science, Onderstepoort Clinical Assistant Professor, Service Head Microbiology Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa Avian, Exotic, and Zoo Medicine Service School of Veterinary Medicine, University Tubulidentata (Aardvark) Department of Clinical Sciences of California, Davis Center for Veterinary Health Sciences Davis, California David S. Miller, DVM, PhD, DACZM Stillwater, Oklahoma Update on Iron Overload in Zoologic Species Miller Veterinary Services Trochiliformes (Hummingbirds) Loveland, Colorado Robert A. MacLean, BA, DVM A Legal Overview for Zoological Medicine George V. Kollias, DVM, PhD Senior Veterinarian Veterinarians J. Hyman Professor of Wildlife Medicine Audubon Nature Institute Section of Zoological Medicine New Orleans, Louisiana Michele A. Miller, DVM, MS, PhD, MPH Department of Clinical Sciences Adjunct Professor Conservation Veterinarian College of Veterinary Medicine Louisiana State University School of Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Cornell University Veterinary Medicine Rare Species Conservatory Foundation Ithaca, New York Baton Rouge, Louisiana Loxahatchee, Florida Mustelidae Gruiformes (Cranes, Limpkins, Rails, Affiliate Professor Gallinules, Coots, Bustards) Department of Clinical Sciences Colorado State University College of Veterinary Medicine Fort Collins, Colorado Rhinoceridae (Rhinoceroses) vi Contributors R. Eric Miller, DVM, DACZM Romain Pizzi, BVSc, MSc, DZooMed, Joseph Saragusty, DVM, PhD Senior Vice President for Zoological Operations MACVSc (Surg) FRES, FRGS, Scientist Director, WildCare Institute MRCVS Department of Reproduction Management Saint Louis Zoo Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons Leibniz Institute for Zoo and wildlife Forest Park Recognized Specialist in Zoo & Wildlife Research St. Louis, Missouri; Medicine Berlin, Germany Adjunct Associate Professor of Veterinary Special Lecturer in Zoo & Wildlife Use of Ultrasonography in Wildlife Species Medicine and Surgery Medicine College of Veterinary Medicine School of Veterinary Medicine and Science Joseph A. Smith, DVM University of Missouri University of Nottingham Director of Animal Health Columbia, Missouri Sutton Bonington, Leicestershire, United Fort Wayne Children’s Zoo, The Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine Kingdom; Fort Wayne, Indiana (JZWM) Veterinary Surgeon Passeriformes (Songbirds, Perching Birds) Royal Zoological Society of Scotland Teresa Y. Morishita, DVM, PhD, DACPV Edinburgh Zoo Gabrielle Stalder, DVM, DrMedVet Associate Dean for Academic Affairs Edinburgh, Scotland; Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology Professor of Poultry Medicine and Food Head of the Veterinary Service Department of Integrative Biology and Safety Scottish SPCA National Wildlife Rescue Evolution College of Veterinary Medicine Centre University of Veterinary Medicine Western University of Health Sciences Fishcross, Clackmannanshire, Scotland; Vienna, Austria Pomona, California Chairman of the Board of Trustees Hippopotamidae (Hippopotamus) Galliformes Wildlife Surgery International United Kingdom Iga M. Stasiak, DVM, DVSc Haylee Westin Murphy, DVM Minimally Invasive Surgery Techniques Pathobiology Director of Veterinary Services Ontario Veterinary College, University of Veterinary Services Julia B. Ponder, DVM Guelph Zoo Atlanta Executive Director Guelph, Ontario, Canada Atlanta, Georgia The Raptor Center Wildlife Health Center Great Apes College of Veterinary Medicine Toronto Zoo University of Minnesota Scarborough, Ontario, Canada Natalie D. Mylniczenko, MS, DVM, St. Paul, Minnesota Update on Iron Overload in Zoologic Species DACZM Strigiformes Staff Veterinarian Hanspeter W. Steinmetz, DrMedVet, Disney’s Animals, Science & Environment Edward Ramsay, DVM, DACZM MSc, DACZM Walt Disney World Professor Director of Animal Care and Science Lake Buena Vista, Florida Department of Small Animal Clinical Knies Kinderzoo Caecilians Sciences Gebr Knie, Schweizer-National-Circus AG University of Tennessee Rapperswil, Switzerland Julia E. Napier, DVM Knoxville, Tennessee The Use of Computed Tomography and Senior Veterinarian Procyonids and Viverids Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Zoo Zoo Hospital Animals Omaha’s Henry Doorly Zoo & Aquarium Sharon Redrobe, BSc (Hons), BVetMed, Omaha, Nebraska CertLAS, DZooMed, MRCVS William Kirk Suedmeyer, DVM, DACZM Hyrocoidea (Hyraxes) Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons Director Recognized Specialist in Zoological Animal Health Donald L. Neiffer, VMD, DACZM Medicine Kansas City Zoo Veterinary Operations Manager Honorary Associate Professor of Zoo, Wild Kansas City, Missouri Disney’s Animal Programs and Exotic Animal Medicine Adjunct Assistant Professor Department of Animal Health Honorary Associate Professor Zoological Medicine Orlando, Florida School of Veterinary Medicine and Science College of Veterinary Medicine Trogoniformes University of Nottingham University of Missouri-Columbia Nottingham, United Kingdom Columbia, Missouri Terry M. Norton, DVM, DACZM Zoological Director Hyaenidae Director and Veterinarian Life Sciences Georgia Sea Turtle Center Twycross Zoo Mariella Superina, DrMedVet, PhD Jekyll Island, Georgia Atherstone, Warwickshire, United Assistant Researcher Wildlife Veterinarian Kingdom Instituto de Medicina y Biología St. Catherine’s Island Foundation Pelecaniformes (Pelicans, Tropicbirds, Experimental de Cuyo (IMBECU) Midway, Georgia Cormorants, Frigatebirds, Anhingas, CCT CONICET Mendoza Ciconiiformes (Herons, Ibises, Spoonbills, Storks) Gannets) Mendoza, Argentina Xenarthra Luis R. Padilla, DVM, DACZM Carlos R. Sanchez, DVM, MSc Staff Veterinarian Zoo Veterinarian Meg Sutherland-Smith, DVM, DACZM Department of Animal Health Chicago, Illinois Associate Director St. Louis Zoo Trochiliformes (Hummingbirds) Veterinary Services St. Louis, Missouri Apodiformes and Coliiformes San Diego Zoo Gaviiformes, Podicipediformes, and San Diego, California Procellariformes (Loons, Grebes, Suidae and Tayassuidae (Wild Pigs, Peccaries) Petrels, and Albatrosses) Canidae Contributors vii John M. Sykes IV, DVM, DACZM Michael T. Walsh, DVM Michelle M. Willette, BS, DVM Associate Veterinarian Co-director Aquatic Animal Health Staff Veterinarian Zoological Health Program, Clinical Associate Professor The Raptor Center Wildlife Conservation Society Large Animal Clinical Sciences College of Veterinary Medicine Bronx, New York College of Veterinary Medicine University of Minnesota Piciformes (Honeyguides, Barbets, University of Florida St. Paul, Minnesota Woodpeckers, Toucans) Gainesville, Florida Strigiformes Sirenia J. Andrew Teare, MSc, DVM Cathy V. Williams, DVM International Species Information System Chris Walzer, DrMedVet, DECZM Senior Veterinarian Eagan, Minnesota (Wildl. Pop. Health) Duke Lemur Center ISIS, MedARKS, ZIMS, and Global Sharing of Professor Duke University Medical Information by Zoologic Chair Conservation Medicine Durham, North Carolina Institutions FIWI - Research Institute of Wildlife Adjunct Assistant Professor of Zoological Ecology Medicine Maryanne E. Tocidlowski, DVM, University of Veterinary Medicine Department of Clinical Sciences DACZM Vienna, Austria College of Veterinary Medicine Associate Veterinarian Hippopotamidae (Hippopotamus) North Carolina State University Veterinary Services Update on Remote Delivery and Restraint Raleigh, North Carolina Houston Zoo, Inc. Equipment Prosimians Houston, Texas Musophagiformes Martha A. Weber, DVM, DACZM Barbara A. Wolfe, DVM, PhD, DACZM Staff Veterinarian Associate Professor-Clinical Eric Hsienshao Tsao, PhD St. Louis, Missouri Veterinary Preventive Medicine Associate Researcher Sheep, Goats, and Goat-Like Animals Ohio State University Taipei Zoo, Columbus, Ohio Taipei, Taiwan Jim Wellehan, DVM, PhD, DACZM, Chief Science Officer Pholidota DACVM (Virology, Bacteriology/ Columbus Zoo and Aquarium and the Mycology) Wilds William George Van Bonn, DVM Assistant Professor Columbus, Ohio Adjunct Clinical Assistant Professor College of Veterinary Medicine Bovidae (Except Sheep and Goats) and Clinical Medicine University of Florida Antilocapridae College of Veterinary Medicine Gainesville, Florida University of Illinois Ophidia (Snakes) Fabia S. Wyss, DrMedVet Urbana-Champaign, Illinois Assistant Veterinarian Research Associate Christian J. Wenker, DrMedVet Clinic for Zoo Animals, Exotic Pets and Wildlife Health Center Zoo Veterinarian Wildlife University of California, Davis Zoo Basel University of Zurich Davis, California Basel, Switzerland Zurich, Switzerland Vice President for Animal Health Phoenicopteriformes Phoenicopteriformes Animal Health John G. Shedd Aquarium Douglas P. Whiteside, DVM, DVSc, Enrique Yarto-Jaramillo, DVM, MSc Chicago, Illinois DACZM Exotic Pets and Zoo Animal Clinician Pinnipedia Clinical Associate Professor Centro Veterinario México Department of Ecosystem and Public Mexico City, Mexico Larry Vogelnest, BVSc, MVS, MACVSc, Health Adjunct Veterinarian PSM University of Calgary Faculty of Veterinary Clinical Department Senior Veterinarian Medicine ZooLeón, Zoológico de Morelia & Taronga Wildlife Hospital Calgary, Alberta, Canada Zoológico de Culiacán Taronga Zoo Senior Staff Veterinarian Mexico City, Mexico Taronga Conservation Society Australia Calgary Zoo Animal Health Centre President Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Calgary, Alberta, Canada Instituto Mexicano de Fauna Silvestre y Marsupialia (Marsupials) Ciconiiformes (Herons, Ibises, Spoonbills, Animales de Compañía (IMFAC, SC) Storks) Mexico City, Mexico Roberta S. Wallace, DVM Cuculiformes (Cuckoos, Roadrunners) Rodentia Adjunct Assistant Professor Department of Surgical Sciences Ellen Wiedner, VMD, DACVIM (Large Dawn M. Zimmerman, DVM, MS School of Veterinary Medicine Animal) Regional Veterinary Manager University of Wisconsin Clinical Assistant Professor Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project Madison, Wisconsin Zoo and Wildlife Medicine Musanze, Rwanda Senior Staff Veterinarian College of Veterinary Medicine Tapiridae Milwaukee County Zoo University of Florida Milwaukee, Wisconsin Gainesville, Florida Sphenisciformes (Penguins) Proboscidea Preface The first two editions of Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine (ZAWAM) Switzerland, Taiwan, The Netherlands, The United Kingdom, and covered the world’s animal groups in a comprehensive fashion, as the United States of America. did the 5th edition published in 2003. The 3rd, 4th, 6th, and 7th editions reflected a Current Veterinary Therapy format focusing on specific topics of current interest. This edition returns to the overall ACKNOWLEDGMENTS taxa format and it is hoped that it will provide an updated reference for zoo and wildlife veterinarians around the world. It has been As with previous issues, the authors freely shared their information designed to offer a timely format with guidance to where more and time for the benefit of the wild animals and the people who care detailed information can be found. for them. Therefore, our special thanks to those authors who con- To ensure a “fresh” approach to this edition, each Senior Author tributed to this edition of Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, as all of the has been changed from the ZAWAM 5. Many of the authors were royalties support wild animal health research, with none going to chosen in their roles as Veterinary Advisors to the taxa that they the authors or editors. review as it was felt that this provided a central overview to problems One Editor (REM) would like to thank the Saint Louis Zoo for of that animal group. In some cases, authors generously donated its support throughout this process, and his administrative assistant, their time to research species which are rarely held in captivity or Amy Brauss, who carefully helped keep that Editor and the process studied in the wild. on track. We also thank the production staff at Elsevier who blended The problems of zoo animals and wildlife are worldwide, and as the styles of so many authors into one cohesive text. Last, but cer- before, this edition reflects a diverse, international authorship. Senior tainly not least, our heartfelt thanks goes out to our wives, Mary Jean authors represent 15 countries: Austria, Australia, Brazil, Canada, and Audrey, who supported us in many ways during our months of Denmark, France, Germany, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa, editing. ix PART I Amphibian Groups 1 CHAPTER Anurans Norin Chai as an important erythropoietic center and plays an important role in BIOLOGY immune function, the synthesis of nitrogenous compounds, antioxi- More than 6200 species of anurans have been currently recorded,1 dation reactions, and the metabolism of various endogenous and and these live on all continents except Antarctica. Although the exogenous substances. The gall bladder is intimately associated with larvae are aquatic, anurans have successfully expanded their habitats the liver, with a bile duct connecting it to the duodenum. In some into numerous and markedly different ecologic types, in the Arctic species, it joins the pancreatic duct before it enters the intestinal Circle, in deserts, in tropical rain forests, and practically everywhere tract. The cloaca is present posteriorly. However, due to the absence in between. Actually, 54 families are proposed; however, anuran of a tail, it appears to be located somewhat dorsally. taxonomy is still a matter of dispute. Table 1-1 lists some relevant Anurans are ectothermic and environmental temperature may families. The goliath frog (Conraua goliath), the largest anuran, is able really modulate their life history, influencing body temperature, to grow up to 33 cm and weigh up to 3 kg. The smallest known frog evaporative water loss, digestion, and oxygen uptake, as well as is Paedophryne amauensis (Microhylidae); with its 7.7 mm length, it the velocity of muscle contraction, locomotion, and vocalization. is also the world’s smallest known vertebrate. In captivity, average Anurans will compensate daily thermal fluctuation by modifying life spans are typically 4 to 15 years. The goliath frog may live up to their behavior and metabolic changes, for instance, by oriented 21 years in captivity. aerobic depression of several organs.9 Therefore, it is important to In a strict sense, the term “toads” represent frogs belonging to the keep the animals within the preferred optimal temperature zone family Bufonidae. In a larger sense, “toad” is used for any terrestrial (POTZ). Some species (mostly temperate) hibernate and estivate. frog having “warty”—dry skin and parotid glands—voluminous Anurans that hibernate in colder climatic conditions accumulate glandular masses behind the eyes. Other frogs have smooth, moist more energy before winter and even after emerging and before breed- skin without warts and (most of the time) lack parotid glands. The ing. Fats are the preferred substrates of aerobic metabolism if oxygen terms “frog” and “toad” are not clear. For instance, the European is not limiting, and are the main source of at least 80% of the energy Fire-bellied Toad (Bombina bombina) is a warty, semi-aquatic “toad” used during hibernation.9 The skin not only has a protective and with no parotids behind the eyes. sensory capacities but also plays critical roles in thermoregulation, Anurans are the best represented in zoos, compared with other fluid balance, respiration, transport of essential ions, respiration, and amphibians. Some, such as Xenopus laevis and Silurana tropicalis, sex recognition. have been model species for research for many years. With the The cutaneous gland (in the dermis) secretions may be irritating, Amphibian Crisis, publicized by the EAZA in 2008 with the “Year toxic, and even potentially lethal, like the steroid alkaloid toxins of of Amphibians,” wild anurans are now the focus of major global the poison frogs (Dendrobates and Phyllobates). One of the natural ecologic concerns, including pollution, climate changes, habitat defenses of the skin is production of antimicrobial peptides in granu- destruction, and nonnative species translocation. Campaigns all lar glands.14 Discharge of the granular glands is initiated by the around the world (for example, the Amphibian ARK) of awareness stimulation of sympathetic nerves. Antimicrobial peptides produced and information on amphibians, have led to a huge amount of infor- in the skin are an important defense against skin pathogens and may mation available online on the husbandry of many anuran species. affect survival of populations. The skin has low resistance for water Consequently, veterinarians are consulted more frequently for infor- evaporation, and most anurans are vulnerable to rapid water loss. In mation on health and disease. terrestrial species, mucous or waxy substances are produced by a variety of glands to reduce evaporative water loss. All anurans may absorb water through the ventral pelvic skin and also reabsorb water ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY in the kidney and from the urinary bladder. All adult anurans are without a tail (the “tail” of tailed frogs [Ascaphus Amphibian lymph consists of all the components of blood, with sp.] is, in fact, an extension of the male cloacae, used as a copulatory the exception of erythrocytes. In anurans, the lymphatic system is organ). Highly specialized in the hopping mode of locomotion, their highly developed and has a major role in fluid exchange and blood long hind legs have given rise to their alternative name salientias volume regulation. It is composed of pulsatile lymph hearts (that (jumpers). However, considerable specialization exists in this regard. beat independently of the heart), an elaborate series of lymph vessels, Some arboreal frogs may move by quadrapedal walking or climbing. and subcutaneous lymph sacs. Lymph flow is unidirectional; one-way Burrowing frogs dig head first with hind legs adapted for excavation. valves are present between the sacs. Lymph heart failure should be Eyes are voluminous; vision plays a great role in nutritional behavior. in the differentials for subcutaneous and coelomic cavitary accumu- Prey movement triggers the feeding response. A nictitating mem- lations of fluid. brane is present. Posterior to each eye, the circular tympanic mem- In anurans, the primary nitrogenous waste may be ammonia, brane represents the ear externally. A large tongue is attached urea, or uric acid. Aquatic species excrete a higher concentration of anteriorly and is folded back into the oral cavity such that its ammonia, whereas many terrestrial anurans have evolved metabolic distal, bifid end lies posteriorly. The tongue is extended to catch adaptations to excrete urea and even uric acid. Dehydrated animals insects. A single row of small teeth lies around the margin of the will decrease their glomerular filtration rate, thereby accumulating upper jaw. ammonia in body tissues, which may lead to azotemia. Anurans seem The coelomic cavity is not divided. The intestinal tract is rela- to be quite resistant to high plasma urea levels. Urea is less toxic tively short and follows the normal vertebrate plan. The liver serves than ammonia and may be stored in body tissues until water may 1 2 PART I • AMPHIBIAN GROUPS TABLE 1-1 Selected Families of Anurans Family Number of Species, Representative Species Geographic Location and Comments Bombinatoridae 10 species Eurasia Bombina frogs (Bombina sp.) Specialized glands in their skin secrete a toxin, which may cause irritation; often display the unken reflex when disturbed Pipidae 33 species South America (genus Pipa) and sub-Saharan Africa (four other Clawed frogs (Xenopus sp., Silurana sp.) genera) Surinam toads (Pipa sp.) Tongueless frogs, lack vocal cords, exclusively aquatic, and often found in animal facilities Hemiphractidae 100 species Central and South Americas Marsupial frogs (Gastrotheca sp., Marsupial female frogs possess a dorsal pouch, where fertilized Flectonotus sp.) eggs are kept; Gastrotheca riobambae is well represented in zoos Bufonidae 571 species Widespread on every continent except Australia and Antarctica True toads (Bufo sp.) Terrestrial, toothless, dry warty skin, a pair of parotid glands; all Common toad (Bufo bufo) males have the Bidder organ (potentially active ovary) Dendrobatidae 177 species Nicaragua to the Amazon Basin of Bolivia and to southeastern Brazil Poison dart frogs (Dendrobates sp., Small, very colorful frogs, famous for their toxic skin production; Phyllobates sp.) very popular with hobbyists and zoos; Phyllobates terribilis secrete one of the most dangerous venoms in the world Hylidae 926 species America, Eurasia to Australo-Papuan region; extreme northern Africa Known as “tree frogs” (Hyla sp., Litoria sp., Most are arboreal and have forward-facing eyes and have adhesive Phyllomedusa sp., Agalychnis sp.), even pads at the extremity of each finger; monkey frogs (Phyllomedusa though some hylids are terrestrial or bicolor) have parotid glands and were the origin of the prototypical semi-aquatic antimicrobial peptide family, the dermaseptins; white tree frog (Litoria caerulea) is a very popular pet frog Ranidae 355 species Worldwide except Antarctica “True frogs” Common frog (Rana sp.) Ranids species are commonly pet frogs; many wild populations are subjects of research work; also used in research facilities Leptodactylidae 189 species Southern United States, Mexico, northern Antilles, south to Brazil Argentine horned frog (Ceratophrys ornata), Argentine horned frog, also called “Pacman frogs,” and Smokey Smokey Jungle frog (Leptodactylus Jungle Frog are very popular pets pentadactylus) Microhylidae 519 species North and South America, sub-Saharan Africa, India to northern Tomato frogs (Dyscophus sp.) Australia Very colorful species of frogs; popular pets; Madagascar tomato frog (D. antongilii) endangered as a result of deforestation and overcollecting for the pet trade be replenished. However, the limit after which toxic effects appear Monitoring hygrometry prevents evaporative water loss. Tadpoles is not clear. Still, urea will be excreted rapidly on rehydration. and aquatic species need dechlorinated water. Water quality param- Larval stages maintain gills for respiration, whereas adults pri- eters (ammonia, pH, and chlorine) should be routinely evaluated marily respire via the lungs and the buccopharyngeal cavity. In with home aquarium test kits. Poor water circulations, overcrowd- addition, all anurans show some degree of cutaneous oxygen ing, or both commonly lead to water quality problems. Waste mate- respiration.12 rial and uneaten foods should be removed. Dilute chlorine bleach is The heart has three chambers, with two atria and one ventricle. a simple and good general disinfectant. Review of husbandry and All anurans show a complete interatrial septum, limiting the mixing zoological records is part of the diagnostic process. Most diseases of oxygenated and unoxygenated blood that still occurs in the single come from a lack of understanding of specific management ventricle. The heart is seen contracting on the midline just caudal to requirements. the animal’s shoulders. A renal portal venous blood system exists. FEEDING SPECIAL HOUSING REQUIREMENTS In general, natural feeding is opportunistic. Although most tadpoles Housing requirements for anurans will definitively depend on their are herbivorous or omnivorous, all adult anurans are carnivorous, specific needs and their natural habitat. However, several key points consuming a wide variety of live invertebrates and also mice, rat should always be monitored. Providing an appropriate temperature pups, fish, or any small vertebrates for the large ones. Terrestrial gradient and a mosaic of thermal zones allows these animals to self- anurans only target moving prey. Many aquatic amphibians are more regulate their body temperature (heat lamps may desiccate the likely to target food by scent and may consume inert food. Most animals and should be avoided). Unlike reptiles, most sick amphib- anurans are voracious feeders and tend to eat anything that fits into ians recuperate better in a cooler rather than a warmer environment. their mouth. Gastric overload and impaction, as well as ingestion of Anurans that are kept above or below their POTZ may show signs non-food items are fairly common. of inappetence, weight loss, agitation changes in skin color, immu- Frequency of feeding depends on the primary energy and nosuppression, and bacterial overgrowth. nutritional requirements of the species, their seasonal activity, and
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