Foundations of Earth Science

577 Pages·2016·83.582 MB·English

by  Frederick K. Lutgens, Edward J. Tarbuck, Dennis G. Tasa

Foundations oF
EaRtH sCiEnCE
E i g h t h Ed i t i o n
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Foundations oF
EaRtH sCiEnCE
E i g h t h Ed i t i o n
FREDERICK K. LUTGENS
EDWARD J. TARBUCK
DENNIS TASA
ILLUSTRATED By
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Lutgens, Frederick K., author. | Tarbuck, Edward J., author.
Title: Foundations of earth science/Frederick K. Lutgens, Edward J. Tarbuck; illustrated by
Dennis Tasa.
Description: Eighth edition. | Boston: Pearson, 2016. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015043673 | ISBN 9780134184814 | ISBN 0134184815
Subjects: LCSH: Earth sciences--Textbooks.
Classification: LCC QE28 .L96 2016 | DDC 550--dc23
LC record available at hgp://lccn.loc.gov/2015043673
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—V0N4—17 16 15 14 13
Student Edition
ISBN-10: 0-134-18481-5
ISBN-13: 978-0-134-18481-4
Instructor’s Review Copy
ISBN-10: 0-134-24076-6
ISBN-13: 978-0-134-24076-3
www.pearsonhighered.com
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To Our Grandchildren
Allison and Lauren
Shannon, Amy, Andy, Ali, and Michael
Each is a bright promise for the future.
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BRIEF TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction to Earth Science 2 unit Vi
EaRtH’s dYnaMiC
unit i
atMosPHERE
328
EaRtH MatERiaLs
22
11
Heating the Atmosphere 328
1
Matter and Minerals 22
12
Moisture, Clouds, and Precipitation 360
2
Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth 44
13
The Atmosphere in Motion 394
14
unit ii Weather Patterns and Severe Weather 416
sCuLPtinG EaR tH’s
suRFaCE
76 unit Vii
3 EaRtH’s PLaCE in tHE
Landscapes Fashioned by Water 76
uniVERsE
444
4
Glacial and Arid Landscapes 114
15
The Nature of the Solar System 444
16
unit iii Beyond Our Solar System 482
FoRCEs WitHin
142
Appendix A
5
Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution
Metric and English Units Compared 504
Unfolds 142
6 Restless Earth: Earthquakes and Mountain Appendix B
Building 172
Relative Humidity and Dew-Point Tables 505
7
Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 210
Appendix C
Stellar Properties 507
unit iV
dECiPHERinG EaR tH’s Glossary 510
HistoRY 248 Index 521
8
Geologic Time 248
unit V
tHE GLoBaL oCEan
272
9
Oceans: The Last Frontier 272
10
The Restless Ocean 298
vi
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CONTENTS
Preface xxi
Unit
Walkthrough xxiv I
eARtH MAteRiALS
introduction to Earth science 2 22
I.1 What Is Earth Science 4
Geology 4
Oceanography 4
Meteorology 5
Astronomy 5
Scales of Space and Time in Earth Science 6
I.2 Earth’s Spheres 8
Hydrosphere 8
Atmosphere 9 1
Biosphere 10
Geosphere 11 Matter and Minerals 22
I.3 Earth as a System 12
1.1 Minerals: Building Blocks of Rocks 24
Earth System Science 13
Defining a Mineral 24
The Earth System 13
What Is a Rock? 25
The Parts Are Linked 13
1.2 Atoms: Building Blocks of Minerals 26
Time and Space Scales 13
Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons 26
Energy for the Earth System 14
Elements: Defined by Their Number of Protons 26
People and the Earth System 14
1.3 Why Atoms Bond 28
I.4 Resources and Environmental Issues 14
The Octet Rule and Chemical Bonds 28
Resources 15
Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred 28
Environmental Problems 16
Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing 29
I.5 The Nature of Scientific Inquiry 17
Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move 29
Hypothesis 17
1.4 Properties of Minerals 30
Theory 18
Optical Properties 30
Scientific Methods 18
Luster 30
Color 30
Streak 30
Ability to Transmit Light 30
Crystal Shape, or Habit 31
Mineral Strength 31
Hardness 31
Cleavage 32
Fracture 32
Tenacity 32
Density and Specific Gravity 33
Other Properties of Minerals 33
vii
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viii Contents
1.5 Mineral Groups 34 Lithification of Sediment 65
Silicate Minerals 35 Features of Sedimentary Rocks 66
Common Light Silicate Minerals 35 2.5 Metamorphic Rocks: New Rock from Old 66
Common Dark Silicate Minerals 37 What Drives Metamorphism? 68
Important Nonsilicate Minerals 38 Heat as a Metamorphic Agent 68
Confining Pressure and Differential Stress as
2 Metamorphic Agents 68
Chemically Active Fluids as Metamorphic
Agents 69
Rocks: Materials of the solid Earth 44
Metamorphic Textures 69
2.1 Earth as a System: The Rock Cycle 46 Foliation 69
The Basic Cycle 46 Nonfoliated Textures 70
Alternative Paths 46 Common Metamorphic Rocks 70
2.2 Igneous Rocks: “Formed by Fire” 48 Foliated Rocks 70
From Magma to Crystalline Rock 48 Nonfoliated Rocks 71
Igneous Compositions 49 Naming Metamorphic Rocks 72
Granitic (Felsic) Versus Basaltic (Mafic)
Compositions 49
Unit SCULptinG eARtH’S
Other Compositional Groups 50 II
SURFACe
What Can Igneous Textures Tell Us? 50 76
Fine-Grained Texture 51
Coarse-Grained Texture 51
Porphyritic Texture 51
Vesicular Texture 51
Glassy Texture 51
Pyroclastic (Fragmental) Texture 51
Common Igneous Rocks 53
Granitic (Felsic) Rocks 53
Andesitic (Intermediate) Rocks 54
3
Basaltic (Mafic) Rocks 54
How Different Igneous Rocks Form 54
Landscapes Fashioned by Water 76
Bowen’s Reaction Series 54
Magmatic Differentiation 55 3.1 Earth’s External Processes 78
2.3 Weathering of Rocks to Form Sediment 56 3.2 Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity 78
Mechanical Weathering 56 Mass Wasting and Landform Development 79
Frost Wedging 56 The Role of Mass Wasting 79
Salt Crystal Growth 57 Slopes Change Through Time 80
Sheeting 57 Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting 80
Biological Activity 58 The Role of Water 80
Chemical Weathering 58 Oversteepened Slopes 81
Water and Carbonic Acid 58 Removal of Vegetation 81
Products of Chemical Weathering 59 Earthquakes as Triggers 81
2.4 Sedimentary Rocks: Compacted and Cemented Landslides Without Triggers? 81
Sediment 60 3.3 The Hydrologic Cycle 81
Types of Sedimentary Rocks 61 Earth’s Water 81
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks 61 Water’s Paths 82
Chemical, Biochemical, and Organic Sedimentary Storage in Glaciers 82
Rocks 62 Water Balance 82
Coal—An Organic Sedimentary Rock 64 3.4 Running Water 83
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Contents ix
Drainage Basins 83 Springs 101
River Systems 84 Wells 101
3.5 Streamflow Characteristics 84 Artesian Systems 102
Factors Affecting Flow Velocity 84 3.13 Environmental Problems of Groundwater 103
Gradient 85 Treating Groundwater as a Nonrenewable
Channel Shape, Size, and Roughness 85 Resource 103
Discharge 85 Land Subsidence Caused by Groundwater
Withdrawal 104
Changes from Upstream to Downstream 86
Groundwater Contamination 105
3.6 The Work of Running Water 87
3.14 The Geologic Work of Groundwater 106
Stream Erosion 87
Caverns 106
Transportation of Sediment by Streams 88
Karst Topography 107
Dissolved Load 88
Suspended Load 88 Sinkholes 108
Bed Load 88 Tower Karst Landscapes 109
Capacity and Competence 88
Deposition of Sediment by Streams 89 4
3.7 Stream Channels 89
Bedrock Channels 89 Glacial and arid Landscapes 114
Alluvial Channels 89
Meandering Channels 89
Braided Channels 90
3.8 Shaping Stream Valleys 92
Base Level and Stream Erosion 92
Valley Deepening 92
Valley Widening 93
Incised Meanders and Stream Terraces 93
3.9 Depositional Landforms 94 4.1 Glaciers and the Earth System 116
Deltas 94 Valley (Alpine) Glaciers 116
Natural Levees 95 Ice Sheets 116
3.10 Floods and Flood Control 96 Ice Age Ice Sheets 117
Causes of Floods 96 Greenland and Antarctica 117
Flood Control 97 Ice Shelves 118
Artificial Levees 97 Other Types of Glaciers 118
Flood-Control Dams 97 4.2 How Glaciers Move 119
Channelization 97 Observing and Measuring Movement 119
A Nonstructural Approach 98 Budget of a Glacier: Accumulation Versus
Wastage 120
3.11 Groundwater: Water Beneath the Surface 98
Glacial Zones 120
The Importance of Groundwater 98
Glacial Budget 120
Groundwater’s Geologic Roles 99
Glaciers in Retreat: Unbalanced Glacial Budgets 120
Distribution of Groundwater 99
4.3 Glacial Erosion 121
Underground Zones 99
How Glaciers Erode 121
Water Table 99
Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion 122
Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement
of Groundwater 100 Glaciated Valleys 122
Porosity 100 Cirques 122
Permeability 100 Arêtes and Horns 123
Aquitards and Aquifers 100 Fiords 124
Groundwater Movement 100 4.4 Glacial Deposits 124
3.12 Springs, Wells, and Artesian Systems 101 Types of Glacial Drift 124
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