Foundations in Biomaterials Engineering PDF
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FOUNDATIONS OF BIOMATERIALS ENGINEERING FOUNDATIONS OF BIOMATERIALS ENGINEERING M C T ARIA RISTINA ANZI S F ` ILVIA ARE G C ABRIELE ANDIANI Coverimage:FromPrana,2017,Rabarama AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier 125LondonWall,LondonEC2Y5AS,UnitedKingdom 525BStreet,Suite1650,SanDiego,CA92101,UnitedStates 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom #2019ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans, electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorage andretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowto seekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandour arrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandthe CopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/ permissions. Thisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyright bythePublisher(otherthanasmaybenotedherein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchand experiencebroadenourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professional practices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgein evaluatingandusinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribed herein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafety andthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,or editors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasa matterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofany methods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN978-0-08-101034-1 ForinformationonallAcademicPresspublications visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:MatthewDeans AcquisitionEditor:SabrinaWebber EditorialProjectManager:LeticiaLima ProductionProjectManager:MariaBernard CoverDesigner:GregHarris TypesetbySPiGlobal,India Preface The idea of this textbook is derived from Thebookisdividedintoeightchaptersorga- an educational book published in Italian and nizedintotwomajorsections.Theintroductory is now rewritten, expanded, and updated. section(thefirstthreechapters)coversengineer- Although there are currently many textbooks ing materials, their properties, and traditional on the subject of biomaterials, we believe that and innovative processing methods, and is this comprehensive but compact introductory intended for students who do not yet have a bookaddressesallthesignificantaspectsofbio- basic knowledgeof thissubject. materialsscienceinabalancedwayforthefirst Thesignificantandspecifictopicsofthistext- time, providing a global vision with an appro- book are addressed in the subsequent section priate balance between depth and broadness (Chapters4–7),whichisdedicatedto“Biomate- in a reasonable number of pages. Conceptual rials and Biocompatibility,” and deals with background materials and a broad overview of issues related to the use and application of the applicationswerebothenvisionedasbeinginte- various classes of materials in the biomedical graltothisbook.Keydefinitions,equations,and field, especially those intended for applications other concepts are concisely pointed out along within the human body. It also deals with the text, allowing readers to quickly and easily the mechanisms underlying the physiological identifythe most important information. processes of defense and repair, and finally Foundations of Biomaterials Engineering is the phenomenology of the interaction between meanttoserveasanauthoritativetoolfortrain- the biological environment and biomaterials. ingandeducatingBachelorstudentsinBiomed- Thelastpartofthebook(Chapter8)concerns ical Engineering because it provides them with two booming sectors: tissue engineering and informationgenerallyunavailableinothertext- biotechnology.Thechapterintroducestheprin- books. It is also well-suited for students from a ciplesandessentialtechnologiesfortissueengi- wide academic spectrum and other back- neering,payingparticularattentiontoscaffolds, groundswhoareunfamiliarwiththebiomedical theirrequirements, and methods of fabrication. field. In addition, it can be useful to anyone Thelastpartofthechapterpresentstheapplica- who wishes to acquire not only a basic knowl- tion fields and purposes of current biotechnol- edgeofbiomaterialsbutalsoofthephysiological ogy, describing the structure and function of mechanisms of defense and repair, tissue engi- nucleic acids, and presenting an outline of neering, and as little as needed for the basis of current techniques and applications of genetic biotechnology. engineering and gene therapy. vii Acknowledgments Whilewritingthechaptersofthisbook,each fellows, and we considered how and where ofusthreeAuthorsfullyexpressedhisownper- their contributions have impacted our writing. sonalscientificvisionandbeliefs,andweallare Also, several colleagues have selflessly given thereforefullyandconcurrentlyresponsiblefor usagreatdealofhelpwiththeartworkandfig- the contents. More than a decade of experience ures used in the different chapters. We are teaching the specific topics of this book has thankful to them all. Each of us was supported helped us select the most relevant information in the preparation of this book by postdoctoral for a fundamental and constructive approach and doctoral students of our team, and espe- in thefield of biomaterials. ciallybyourfamilies.Toallofthem,ourgrateful Nonetheless, we have been influenced by thanks! different readings and discussion with other ix C H A P T E R 1 Organization, Structure, and Properties of Materials 1.1 THE MAIN CLASSES Aphilosophicaldefinitionofmaterialcanbea OF MATERIALS substanceofwhicheverything iscomposedormade. Amorescientificdefinitioncanbeasfollows:a materialcanbedefinedasanaggregateofatomsor Differentclassesofmaterialscanbeidentified moleculescapableofrespondingwithanappropriate basedon their chemical structure: response to a chemical, physical, and mechanical – metals; stimulus to allow being used to obtain objects, – ceramics andglasses; components, and structures. – synthetic andnatural polymers. Material properties depend on their micro- structure, that is, related to composition and A fourth class, called composite materials, is atomic or molecular organization, as well as the combination of two or more materials to chemical and physical treatments to which belonging to the three main classes (i.e., metal, the material undergoes during its processing ceramics, and polymers). (Fig. 1.1). Therefore it is necessary to under- Tochooseandusematerialsconsciously,itis stand, study, and get knowledge on what crucial to understand that there is a strict bond and how material is made up; how can it be between the properties and the structure of the used, as it can be modified and made better material. to get more powerful materials; and how newmaterialscanbeobtained.Forthatreason, 1.1.1 Structure and Organization of materials science can be defined as the disci- Solids pline that studies the relationship between 1.1.1.1 Solid Stateand Chemical Bonds material structure and properties. Further- more, material technology is the science that Solid state represents something with the studies possible applications starting from adequatecharacteristicstobetterfittheprevious material properties. definition of a material. In fact, materials are 3 FoundationsofBiomaterialsEngineering #2019ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-101034-1.00001-3 4 1. ORGANIZATION,STRUCTURE,ANDPROPERTIESOFMATERIALS Property Microstructure (cid:129) Fabrication process (cid:129) Composition (cid:129) Modification treatment (cid:129) Atomic or molecular organization (cid:129) Usage FIG.1.1 Schemeofthemainrelationshipamongmaterialstructure,properties,andprocessing. mainlyusedatasolidstateforstructuralappli- – a metallic bond, which isa bond between cations, for example, when an adequate atoms in ametallic element, formed by the response is needed as a reaction to a chemical, valence electrons moving freely through the physical, ormechanical stimulus. metal lattice. At the solid state, materials can be classified Among different molecules, other types of onthebasisoftheirstructureandtypeofchem- bonds can be formed, typically weak electro- ical bonds among the atoms. Chemical bonds static bonds, such as dipole/dipole, hydrogen playanimportantroleindeterminingchemical, bonds, andVan der Waalsforces. physical, and mechanical properties of a mate- rial; hence, it is important to understand the main differences among thetypeof bonds. COVALENTBOND In a material, atoms form bonds with other In the covalent bond, atoms of the involved atomstoreachtheenergycondition(orconfigu- elementareabletoshareelectrons(oneormore ration) of maximum stability. The electrons of valenceelectrons)oftheiroutershellwithother the outer energetic level, named valence elec- atoms to reach a more stable configuration. In trons,areresponsiblefortheformationofbonds fact, this bond is formed when an element has among atoms of a material. The configuration anearlyfulloutershellandneedsonlyonemore with eight electrons in the outer energetic level atomto acquire afull outer shell;it then shares is one of maximum chemical stability and is their outer electrons with another atom, so that related to noble gases. In all other cases, when both of them become full and stable (Fig. 1.2). anumberofelectronslowerthaneightispresent In particular, if the atoms shared one electron, ontheouterlevel,atomsformsbondswithother a simple covalent bond is formed (Fig. 1.2A atoms,soastoreachamorestableconfiguration. andB);whentwoelectronsareshared,thebond Inparticular,thisispossiblebytheformationof: isadoublecovalentone(Fig.1.2C);andifthree – a covalentbond, which isa bond formedby electrons are shared, a triple covalent bond is the sharing ofone or moreelectrons by formed (Fig. 1.2D). In addition, covalent bonds two atoms; can be formed among different atoms (e.g., – an ionic bond,whichis anelectrostatic bond CdH, CdO, NdH). In this case, because of betweentwoionsformedthroughthetransfer the weak difference in electronegativity of the of one or more electrons; atomsinvolvedinthebond,thesharedelectrons A. INTRODUCTIONTOMATERIALS 5 1.1 THEMAINCLASSESOFMATERIALS FIG. 1.2 Covalentbonds:(A)and(B)theouter shell of the two atoms shares one electron with theotheratom,sothatboththeatomsbecomestable (simple covalent bond); (C) two electrons are shared(doublecovalentbond);(D)threeelectrons areshared(triplecovalentbond). are displaced toward the more electronegative electricityandheat.Thebondaverystrong,and atom, forming a dipole. typical covalent bond strength (e.g., CdC) is Anatomcanalsoformmoresimplecovalent about 350kJ/mol. bondsatthesametime;infact,inthecaseofcar- bon that has four valence electrons, it can form IONICBOND uptofourcovalentbondstoreachamorestable Ionic bonds (Fig. 1.4) are formed when one configuration. That is the case of the polymers atom donates one or more electrons to form a (see Sections 1.2 and 1.6) that are mainly com- cation, and another atom accepts the electrons posedbyatomsbondedtogetherinlongchains bycovalentbondswithlateralbondswithatoms to form an anion. In fact, ionic bond is formed of H,N,O (Fig. 1.3). betweenatomswithahighdifferenceinelectro- negativity values; one of the atoms has, in the Covalent bonds are directional, and, as the outer energetic level, a few electrons (e.g., one electronsareheldinplace,thematerialsformed or two electrons) and the other atom lacks of withthisbondaregenerallypoorconductorsof the same number of valence electrons to reach eight (i.e., a more stable configuration). In this case, one or more valence electrons are trans- C C C C C ferred from one atom to another one to regain the most stable configuration (i.e., eight elec- C C C C C trons). The atoms that yield electrons become positively charged ions (i.e., cations), and the FIG. 1.3 ones that receive them become negatively Covalent bonds: long linear chain of carbon atomslinkedtogetherwithsimplecovalentbonds. charged ions (i.e., anions). The two ions attract A. INTRODUCTIONTOMATERIALS
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