Former distribution and apparent disappearance of theLitoria aureacomplex from the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory

9 Pages·1996·1.2 MB·English

by  W. S. Osborne

Former distribution and apparent disappearance of
the Litoria aurea complex from the Southern Tablelands
of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory
W. S. Osborne,' M. J. Littlejohn2 and S. A. Thomson'
'Applied Ecology Research Group, University of Canberra, P.O. Box 1, Belconnen,
Australian Capital Territory, 2616.
2Depanment of Zoology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3052.
ABSTRACT
Frogs of the titoria aurea complex were common and widespread in the Southern Tablelands of
New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory before they apparently suffered a major decline
in abundance at the end of the 1970s. The extent of population declines in the species complex has
been assessed by examination of museum specimens and records, waluatiin of remits by experienced
herpetologists and by undertaking field surveys, particularly in the Canberra region. Examination of
museum material confirmed that three taxa occurred in the Southern Tablelands; L. aurea, L. raniformis
and L. flavipunctata. Litoria aurea occurred only in the northern half of the Southern Tablelands,
extending as far south as Canberra and Braidwood; L. raniformis occurred throughout much of the
region at altitudes up to about 1 300 metres, but may not have occurred east of Lake George; and
L. flavipunctata apparently had a restricted distribution near Canberra, Bombala and Delegate.
Opportunistic surveys conducted since 1985 indicate that all members of the complex have
disappeared from an extensive area of the Southern Tablelands centred on Canberra. SuNeys have
not been conducted in the southem Monaro or along the eastern edge of the tablelands where remnant
populations may still occur. Long-term records of precipitation indicate that a series of severe droughts
correlates with the period when members of the L aurea complex disappeared from the Southern
Tablelands. However, the frogs also vanished from well-watered sites such as rivers, urban lakes and
pwls located in botanic gardens. This indicates that other unknown factors are likely to have been
involved in the declines. Surveys to locate any remnant populations should be given a high priority
and further research is required to determine the extent to which disease, climate change, increasing
ultraviolet radiation and spread of the fish Gambusia influenced the population declines.
INTRODUCTION The taxonomy of the L. aurea com~lexin the
Southern Tablelands populations is complex
The distribution of the Litoria aurea complex
and somewhat unresolved (Thomson el al.
(sensu Courtice and Grigg 1975) has been
1996). Most authorities report only two species
previously described in detail by Courtice and
as occurring in the Australian Capital Territory
Grigg (1975), Brook (1983) and Watson and
region: L. aurea and L. raniJomis. However,
Littlejohn (1985). Three species are currently
Humphries (1979) and Watson and Littlejohn
recognized as occurring in eastern Australia: L.
(1985) suggested that another spedes resembling
aurea, a species with an easterly distribution,
L. j'avipunctala occurred near Canberra. This
occurring along the eastern coastal plains of
view is supported by a recent analysis of Southern
New South Wales and far eastern Victoria, with
Tablelands Bell Frogs by Thomson el al. (1996),
inland occurrences near Canberra and Bathurst
and in this paper we will refer to specimens from
(Moore 1961; Courtice and Grigg 1975); L.
the Southern Tablelands as L. flauipunctata.
raniformls, an inland species which has a more
southerly and westerly distribution throughout Prior to the late 1970s, frogs of the L. aurea
much of Victoria and southern New South complex were considered to be common in the
Wales, occurring west of the Great Dividing Southern Tablelands, including the Australian
Range except in southern Victoria where it Capital Territory (Humphries 1979, pers.
reaches the coast (Watson and Littlejohn 1985; comm.; Osborne 1992; J. Wombey, pers. comm.).
Hero el al. 1991); and L.flavipunctata (Courtice Osborne (1986) first commented on the decline
and Grigg 1975; note that Cogger 1992 refers of members of the complex in the Canberra
to this species as L. cmtanea). Litoriaflauipunciuta Region, and, following further surveys (Osborne
has a restricted distribution on the New England 1990), suggested that the species in the complex
Tablelands north of Armidale where it is may have become extinct in the Australian
apparently isolated from the other two taxa Capital Territory. In this paper, we present
(Courtice and Grigg 1975). All three species are detailed information on the former distribution
considered to he threatened in New South Wales of members of the L, aurea complex in the
where they are listed on Schedule 12 of the Southern Tablelands, and present the results of
National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 (Lunney and opportunistic surveys aimed at locating any
Ayers 1993). remnant populations.
190 Australian Zoologist 30(2) May 1996
Tohle I. Sires where Lilona ourca complex froys wcrc reliably reported to occur in rhe Canberra region prior ro their
disappearance, and r%,hichh are heen sr~hserl~rentlrye -sur\,eyed in the last 10 years. No I.. nlivm complex
frogs \rere found a1 any of these sires in rhe surveys sirlcu 1985.
Sire surveyed
in lasr
1.ocarion Year Source Hallitat I0 years
Callemondah, Shannon's Flat NSW 1959 P. Ormay marsh N
hlolonglo River, Queanbeyan, NS\\' > 10 ?.a. R. Dencio ui~er Y
Cullector. XI.\' 197.5 hl. Lirtlejoho farm dam Y
Brookcs C~cekat Fcderal Higlrwa).. NSW > 10 y.;, J. Smith stream Y
0akd;dc (5 km NE Suuon) NS\V 1956 R. Humphries farm dam Y
Cooma BackCreek > 10 ?.a. P.Johnron s~reaen Y
ANU campus ponds, ,\CT 1955 bf. Lirrlqjohn pond Y
Urriara RdiCoppins Crossing Kd. ACT 1955 hl. 1.irtl~juhn farnn dam Y
Coppin's Crossing. .4C[ > 1Op.a. K. Lnnglnorc river Y
Lakc Burley Griffin, ACL' > 1Oy.a. C. Grcen reed hedilake Y
Sewage Tl'lra~menrP onds, Fyshwicb. ACT > 1Oy.a. B. Baker largc ponds Y
Llrriarra Sradon, ACT > I0 ya D. \\'illiams ljrm darn Y
University of Canhern campus. ACI. > l0y.a. J. Womhey small pond Y
Lake Ginninderra. ACr > 10y.a. J. Wonlhcy lake Y
Near \It Clear camp ground, ACr > 10y.a. J. Worrrbey ~~nsatrlela m Y
Yonvani GolfCoorse, ACT > 10y.a. R. Dencio swamp Y
Pond near Gungahlin CSIRO, ACT > IOya R. Dencio farm darn Y
Jen-ahomhel-ra Creek, ACT > l0y.a. T. Rutmrr lake Y
Brucc Kidgc. ACT 1950's J. Kanc marsh Y
Commo~,r~~cIa'alr~kb. ACL' 1950's \I. Cowan laree ~ond Y
METHODS ap. p. roach involved interviewing experienced
l~c~~~~c~:tt1o10l ~fi~clg~lit s~~.ts~ .ir:tI:it\l~~~(, utII ICII.
Hisron'cal Records of Former Occurrence
ktn~ulcgtlavgcos l ~ l I~t,ttm vl 1;111el I>I~.\C.III <X:CUI~CII(:~~
Specimens in the Australian Museum (AM), of Bell in the Southern ?ablelands. Fifteen
Museum of Victoria (MV) and the Australian people were considered to have reliable records
National Wildlife Collection (ANWC) were of the former occurrence of unidentified
examined to check the identity of individual members of the L. aurea complex (Table 1).
specimens from the study area. Identification
was made by reference to Courtice and Grigg Current Distribution
(1975). The date of collection of each specimen
was also recorded if available and the altitude of The extent of the current distribution of
the collection site determined from topographic members of the complex has not been systematic-
maps. ally surveyed. Instead, one of us (M'SO) has
conducted opportunistic searches at many sites
Two approaches were used to assess the in the Australian Capital Territoryand nearby
historic occurrence of the L. aurea complex in areas of New South Wales in an area bounded
the Southern Tablelands. Firstly, one of us by the towns of Murrumbateman, Collector,
(MJL) undertook extensive observational Bungendore, Captains Flat, Cooma, Jindabyne,
surveys of anuran choruses along roads that Adalninaby and Wee Jasper (Figs 1 and 2).
traversed parts of the study area during late Searches undertaken between 1985 and 1995
September and October 1975 and 1976. These included 175 farm dams, six swamps, eleven
surveys occurred in the .4ustralian Capital streams and three lakes. Searches in this area
(a),
Territory (29 sites) and near Collector included most of the sites where members of the
Braidwood (16), Cooma (5) and Bombala (10) in L. aurea complex were reliably reported to have
New South Wales. The approach taken involved once occurred (Table 1).
opportunistically recording frog choruses at
night and assigning individual species at each
Long-term Rainfall at Canberra
site with a qualitative index of chorus intensity
(e.g., Littlejohn 1980). The field note book data Meteorological data were obtained from the
available from MJL was analysed to obtain Bureau of Meteorology in Canberra in order to
information on the number of choruses examine monthly precipitation at Canberra for
recorded and the number of choruses in which the period 1940-1994. The main breeding
a member of the L. aurea complex was present. season for the L. aurea group in the Southern
Air and water temperatures were sometimes Tablelands was reported to have been during
taken at the times the frog calls were recorded October-December (Humphries 1979), so
and these have been examined to assess the suit- precipitation totals from these months were
ability of survey conditions, and to provide compared with annual totals to check for any
a basis for determining the temperature lengthy dry periods that may have adversely
preferences of calling frogs. The second affected breeding success.
May 1996 Australian Zoologist 30(2) 191
Mountain near Bombala (AM R93243, collected
by G. Shea). There are few existing records of L
j7avZpzlmtata. Copland collected several specimens
from near Bombala in 1955 (AM R74609 and
74610). The most recent records of this
undescribed species are from Canberra where
the last museum specimen was collected by
K. Slater in March 1976 (ANWC A0649).
Litoria aurea was found to occur over a wide
range of altitudes from sea level to about 700 m
near Braidwood (700 m) (Fig. 3). Lit& ranifonnis
was also widely distributed, occumng at sea level
in Victoria (Hero et al. 1991), with an upper
altitudinal limit of about 1 200 m in the Thredbo
Valley in Kosciusko National Park. Litoria
flauipunclat~ apparently was restricted to the
tablelands between 700 and 800 m (Fig. 2).
Fig. I. Furmer distribution of the Lilmia area complex in
rhe Southern Tablelands of New South M'ales.
L. aurea; 0 L. +nni/onnir: @ L.finiipunclata.
RESULTS
Former Distribution
Examination of museum specimens and
records indicated that three taxa in the L. aurea
complex previously occurred in the Southern
Tablelands (ST) of New Sourh Wales. These
were L. aurea, L. ranifomis and L. Jlauipunctata
(See Thomson el al. 1995).
Records of the presence of L. aurea in the
Southern Tablelands date from the collections
of Copland in 1938 (AM R84809 collected at
Bundanoon) (see also Copland 1957). The most
recent record of L. aurea from the Tablelands
was obtained by M. Anstis in January 1977 at
Braidwood (AM R119329). There have been a
number of very recent records of L. aurea from
the south coast of New South Wales (Daly 1995;
White and Pyke 1995). The earliest record we
can find of L. ranformis from the Southern
Tablelands is a specimen collected by E.
Troughton at Bemdale in 1921 (R5233). Several
specimens were also collected by Copland in
1955 at Adaminaby (AM R7466674675). The Fig. 2. Sites surveyed for frogs in the Canberra region during
most recent confirmed records of L. ranifomis the period 1985 to 1995. Some circles overlap more
are single specimens collected in January 1980; than one sire. represent sites whereL, aureacornplex
frogs were observed or heard by reliable observers
one from Bondi State Forest (AM R108099,
prior to 1985 (Table I). No frogs from the complex
collected by G. Webb), and onc from Big Jack have subsequently been found at any of these sites.
192 Australian Zoobgist 30(2) May 7996
.
t%*#0.-
0 I 1
1480 1490
1500 1510
Degrees of longitude
Fig. 3. Plot of altitude versus degress of longitude for L. aureo complex specimen sites
occurring between latitude 31"s and the Victorian border. All records based on exarnina-
tion of museum specimens (see text). L. nrmea; 0 L. la,l@nnls; 0 L. jaaipundrrla.
Previous Abundance all surveys that may have been undertaken on
cold evenings).
There have been no estimates of population
density for members of the L, aurea complex in The frequency olo ccurrence of each taxon in
the Southern Tablelands. M'e have obtained museum collections also provides some impl-es-
anecdotal information to suggest that high sion of former abundance (keeping in mind that
densities were reached in favourable sites. Reliable the numbers of specimens collected may simply
observers (Table 1) report that bell frogs (specific reflect the availability of experienced collectors
identity unknown) were very common at many and their particular bias). Litoria runfirn~lsis the
sites prior to 1980. For example, thc frogs most frequently occurring species in the combined
frequently were seFn basking on reeds, 01-w ere collections (88 specimens), follo>red by L. aurea
observed jumping into the water in large (36) and L.Jauip~mclala (20) (Fig. 4).
numbers, at sites such as the Fyshrvick Sewage
Treatment Ponds, the edge of Lake Burley
Gril'fin, and along the Molonglo River in the
Australian Capital Territory.
Moderately large populations also occurred in,
and around, many livestock watering dams in
cleared pasture, or in naturally treeless grasslands
in the region (Humphries 1979, pers. comm.).
At several locations at the edge of Canben-a, the
frogs were abundant enough to allow for easy
collection of upa t.o 50 specimens for university
practical classes Kane, pers. comm.). Qualitative
information on the abundance of the frogs was
obtained from field notes recorded in 1975 and
1976 (recorded by MJL). Of the 68 frog choruses
recorded at different sites in the Southern Tahle-
lands during late Septembcr and Octobel-, five
choruses (7%) included L. aurea; five choruses
(7%)i ncluded L, ran(formis, and three choruses
(4%)i ncluded L.Jlauipunclala. Overall, only 17% Fig 4. Kumber of different locations at rrhich L, nrirva
of all choruses included a member of the complex, complex museum specimens wcrc collecred during
although this may reflect the cold evenings 10-gear periods from the Southern Tablelands of New
Sourh Wales during this ccntury. Nutnlxrs at the end
experienced during some of the surveys (since
of each bar indicate roral numbers of specinlens
information on temperature is not available for
collected during each decade. See text for further
many of the surveys it is not possible to exclude infonnarion.
Australian Zoologist 30(2) 193
Year
Year
Fig. 5. Precipirarion in Canberra during the period 1940 to 1993. (a) Annual rainfall;
+ +
(b) Summed monthly rainfall for October November December of each year.
Horizontal line indicates long-term mean, hatching indicates precipitation lower
than the long-term mean.
Calling Season and Temperatures associated Extent of Population Declines and Relationship
with Calling to long-term Precipitation
Field note book records (made by MJL) provide The opportunistic surveys conducted during
some information on the calling season of the spring and early summer 1985-1995 were all
frogs in the Southern Tablelands, and allowed unsuccessful, with no members of the complex
us to define the water and air temperature being recorded. Moreover, the surveys of 24
conditions associated with calling. Lztoria aurea specific locations where the frogs had formerly
(n = 7 observation dates) was recorded calling been recorded also were unsuccessful (Table 1;
between late September and throughout Fig. 2). Most of the sires in the Australian Capital
October at wet bulb air temperatures ranging Territory have been surveyed repeatedly over
from 7.7"C to 14°C and at water temperatures a number of years (WSO unpubl. data), thus
ranging from 16% to 18°C. Litoria ranfor& increasing the likelihood of detection of these frogs.
(n = 5) was recorded calling only during
Long-term precipitation records (Fig. 4)
October. No measurements of temperature
indicate that drought is a regular feature of the
were made for this species. Liloriafivipunctata
Southern Tablelands, with lower than average
(n = 7) was recorded calling during the same
precipitation occurring at irregular intervals,
period as L. aurea and over a similar range of air
but rarely lasting for more than two consecutive
temperatures, and at water temperatures ranging
years. Annual precipitation during the period
from 12.7"C to 18°C.
1976 to 1982 was generally below the long-term
Humphries (1979) suggested that near average (Fig. 5a) corresponding with a period of
Canberra each of the species called during drought in the Southern Tablelands. Precipitation
favourable weather in the period October to during the breeding season (October-December)
early January. However, field surveys by MJL was particularly low with virtually no rainfall
were not conducted later than the end of occurring in 1977 and 1982, and rainfall well
October so the full extent of the calling season below average occurring during the months in
was not determined. the intervening years (Fig. 5b).
concern that the surveys reported here were
conducted. Our surveys confirm that all three
taxa have suffered an extensive decline, with no
confirmed records or observations of these taxa
in the Southern Tablelands since 1980. If no
remnant populations remain, then this represents
a major contraction of the geographic ranges of
L. aurea and L. ranfmis and the likely extinction
of the possible third taxon L. jiavipunctata. On
the Northern Tablelands of New South Wales
L. Jlavipunctata also appears to have disappeared
(M. Mahony, pers. comm.).
The population declines apparently occurred
precipitously between about 1978 and 1981 , and
Plate 2a. Pond where Humphries (1979) studied both L. did not involve a prolonged stage when the frogs
aurea and L. flavzpunctata in the late 1970s. This, and were in low numbers (such as is the current case
other nearby ponds which supported the frogs, were
for Pseudoph yne corroboree in Kosciusko National
Surveyed on a number of occasions during the period
1985 to 1995, but no members of the L. aurea complex Park (Osborne 1989, 1992). Despite a number
have been subsequently found. This pond does not of recent reports of bell frogs near Canberra and
contain Mosquito Fish. Cooma, all attempts to find the frogs in these
areas have been unsuccessful (Osborne 1992;
Fig. 2). Most presumed sightings or call records
have, in fact, turned out to be other large-bodied
frogs, or species such as Lzmnodynastes dumerilzi
which have growling encounter calls (MJL and
WSO unpubl. obs.).
Whilst surveys in the Australian Capital
Territory have been extensive and conducted
over many years (see also Rauhala 1993, 1995),
surveys in other parts of the Southern Table-
lands have been limited (Fig. 2). In particular,
the Monaro region and eastern extent of the
Southern Tablelands have not been surveyed.
Priority should be given to surveying these areas
which may still support remnant populations.
Plate 26. Swampland at Fyshwick m the Australian Capital
Territory. This area formerly supported members of Natural fluctuations may be typical of long-term
the L. aurea complex. trends in the abundance of many amphibians
(Pechmann et al. 1991). However, we do not
DISCUSSION
consider that the rapid extinction of taxa from
The availability of .museum records and very large geographic areas can be explained by
reliable field observations confirm that three natural fluctuations. Instead such losses are
members of the L. aurea complex were wide- generally attributed to human disturbance.
spread in the Southern Tablelands including the Drainage of wetlands, habitat disturbance, over-
Australian Capital Territory (Fig. 1). Lztoria collecting, introduction of exotic fish and
aurea occurred in the region between Canberra amphibians, increasing soil salinity, acidification
and Braidwood and further north towards of water and soil, and the use of pesticides and
Goulburn and Moss Vale, but apparently did not herbicides, have all been implicated in losses of
occur in the Monaro region south of Canberra.
amphibian populations (see reviews by Honegger
This largely coastal species is not known from
1981; Hayes and Jennings 1986; Ferraro and
altitudes over 800 m. Litoria raniformis, another
Burgin 1993). However, a number of the
wide-spread species also apparently occurred
declines and extinctions reported recently have
throughout the Southern Tablelands, occurring
occurred in areas remote from obvious human
at altitudes up to about 1 300 m. The third
influence (e.g., Corn and Fogleman 1984; Heyer
species L. Jlavipunctata appears to have had a
et al. 1988; McDonald 1990), indicating that less-
restricted distribution between Canberra and
obvious processes may be involved. A number
Bombala, and was separated from the nearest
of explanations have been suggested to account
known populations of L. jiavzfinctata in the
for these more insidious declines; they include
Northern Tablelands by over 500 km.
the possible influence of disease, global climatic
Osborne (1986) first commented on the change, various forms of pollution and an
decline of the L. aurea complex populations in increase in ultraviolet radiation (affecting eggs
the Canberra region. It was in response to this and embryos in open pools, and basking species)
May 1996 Australian Zoologist 30(2) 195
(Blaustein and Wake 1995). Unfortunately, Water quality in remaining water bodies may
there has been little experimental research on have deteriorated as a result of increasing
frog populations which can be used to test these turbidity and trampling by livestock. Many
theories. potential refuges for frogs such as earth cracks,
and the soil beneath grass litter, tussocks, rocks
and logs became dry. Because of their large size
The possible role of Drought
(SVL 5&100 mm) adults of the L. aurea complex
Although rarely reported, drought also has may not have been able to seek out suitable
been identified as an important local determinant moist microhabitats at this time. These aspects
of losses of frog populations (Corn and Fogleman of their ecology may have predisposed them to
1984), and cyclical changes in rainfall undoubtedly decline during conditions of extreme drought.
influence the size of amphibian populations Nevertheless, the high fecundity of these frogs
over time (Bragg 1960; Pechmann et al. 1991). (van de Mortel and Buttemer 1996) should have
Tyler (1990) suggests that the El Nifio-induced ensured a potential for rapid recovery in the
drought in southeastern Australia must have years of reliable rainfall following the cessation
produced localized extinctions of frog popula- of drought.
tions, but not on the scale of declines that has
Although a population decline during
been observed in this area.
drought is not unexpected, the complete
Interviews with a number of reliable observers disappearance of the L. aurea complex species
indicated that the decline of the L. aurea complex from the Australian Capital Territory and
in the Southern Tablelands occurred during the surrounding regions is surprising. Some of the
period 197a1980, a period subject to severe sites where the species occurred did not become
drought (Fig. 5). Very dry summers were dry during the drought (e.g., sewerage treat-
recorded in 1979, 1981 and 1982, culminating ment ponds at Fyshwick, permanent ponds in
in a drought in 1982-83 that included the worst the Australian National Botanical Gardens and
16-month sequence on record for the Australian on the campus of the Australian National
Capital Territory (Daniel1 1986). Because of the University, large permanent lakes including
close dependence of frogs on moisture, the Lake Burley Griffin and Lake Ginninderra,
prolonged dry conditions experienced in the large pools in Ginninderra Creek, and the
Canberra region undoubtedly would have had a Molonglo River at Coppins Crossing and
severe impact on frog populations. Queanbeyan; Table 1) indicating that there
almost certainly were other factors involved in
Drought can potentially affect amphibian
the declines.
mortality in several ways. For example, prolonged
periods without rainfall can desiccate eggs and
Other possible causes of Population Decline
eliminate shallow pools that contain tadpoles. If
the daytime sheltering places of adults and In the last few years, numerous hypotheses
juveniles become dry, increased mortality may have been raised to offer possible explanations
follow. Dry conditions are also expected to delay for amphibian declines (see Mahony 1996). In
breeding and prevent females from moving to coastal regions the introduced Mosquito Fish
breeding areas. Frogs in the L. aurea complex Gambusia affinnis is strongly implicated in the
are considered to be among the most aquatic disappearance of L. aurea from many seemingly
species in Australia (Tyler 1976); they are suitable sites (Pyke and White 1995). However,
semi-aquatic and often are associated with Mosquito Fish are not present at many sites
permanent waterbodies including slow-moving where bell frogs previously occurred in the
lotic situations, swamps and farm dams (Harrison Southern Tablelands (W. Osborne, pers. obs.),
1922; Courtice and Grigg 1975). Unlike many indicating that other factors may have contributed
other species, they apparently do not normally to the declines. The rapid lusa uT populations is
undertake a seasonal migration away from the similar to that suggested as being caused by an
edges of the water bodies; instead, these situations exotic viral infection in montane frogs in
also provide the feeding sites and overwintering Queensland (Laurance et al., in press), where
sites (Humphries 1979). There are also reports declines have also been confined to high altitude
of their occurrence well away from potential populations (Richards et al. 1993; Trenerry et al.
breeding sites, so they obviously also undertake 1994; Mahony 1996).
terrestrial movements, perhaps in search of new
Selective declines confined to high altitudes
breeding sites after their ponds become unsuitable
also fit another scenario; that of the possibility
(Humphries 1979; Daly 1995). By undertaking
of some form of global impact that is magnified
such movements, it is possible that they could
at higher altitudes. For example, Blaustein et al.
also seek out drought refuges.
(1994) argue that the increased ultraviolet
During the drought years, many ponds and radiation following ozone depletion has the
streams in the Australian Capital Territory dried potential to harm amphibian eggs and embryos,
or supported little water (W. Osborne, pers. obs.). particularly in species living at high altitudes
196 Ausiralian Zoologist 30(2)
(Blaustein el ol. 1994; see van de Mortel and Coul-rice, G. P. and Grigg, G. C., 1975. A taxonomic revision
Buttemer, this volume, for a full discussion and of the L~tariao uren complex (Anura: Hylidae) in sooth-
eastern Australia. Au.?t. Zool. 18: 14943.
further references). The direct basking habit of
L. azuea and its relatives (Courtice and Grigg Copland. S. J., 195i. Presidential address. Australian tree
frogs of the genus Hjln. Proceedings $the Linmeun Socivtj
1975) may also expose juveniles and adults to
of ~\'CIU South HVolec. 82: 9-108.
UV-B radiation, however its effect on adults is
Corn, P. S. and Fugleman, J. C., 1984. Extinction of
not known.
montane populations of the norrhern Leopard Frog
As a fil-st step in conservation efforts [or the (Kono pipier14 in Colorado. Jotm~nlo f Herpelology 18:
147-52.
Southern Tablelands, field surveys should be
Daly. G., 1995. Observations on the Green and Golden Bell
undertaken in regions not yet surveyed;
Frog (Litoria aum) (Anura: Hylidae) in southern New
particularly south of Cooma and along the eastcln
South \%'ales. Herpetofnurzo 25(1): 2-9.
edge ooT the tablelands. Should remanent
Daniell. T. M.. 1986. The drought of 1979183 and its effect
populations he found, pnority should be given on the operarion and design of Canberra's water supply
to their conservation. In addition to habitat rysrem. Pp. 1-22 in The Drought 011979-82:A Momge-
protection, this will require additional research ,,rent Strdy ed by M. N. \'irwanathan. Hunter District
into the possible role that disease, climate Water Board: Nervcastle.
change, increasing UV-B radiation and spread Harrison, L.., 1922. On the breeding habits of some Austra-
of the invasive fish Gambusia may play in lian frogs. Aust. Zool. 3: 17-34.
preventing population recovery. Hayes, M.P . and Jmnings, M. R., 1986. Decline of Ranid
fror S U ~ Ci~n ~rvSe srern North .4rnerica: Are bull froes
(~a';m'cotesbumna) responsible? Journal of Herpetolo~2 5:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 490-509.
Kruno Kukolic (Australian Capital Territory Heyer, \Ir. R., Kand, A. S., Goncalver, da Cruz, C. A. and
Parks and Conservation Service) provided Peixotu, 0. L., 1988. Decimations, extincrions, and
colonizations of frog populations in south-east Brazil
assistance and company during many of the frog
and their evolutionary implications. BioI~opi~u2 0:
surveys. The following people are thanked for 320-35.
providing information on the former occurrence
Hero, J-M., Littlejohn, M. J. and Marantelli, G., 1991. Fmg-
of bell frogs in the Southern Tablelands: unlch Fiekl Guirl? to l'ictorian F~ogr. Department of
B. Baker (Australian Nature Conservation Conser7,arion and Environment: Victoria.
Agency), R. Barwick (Australian National Honegger, R. E., 198 1. Threatened Amphibknc ond Reptiler $
University), M. Cowan, R. Dencio (formerly Europe. Akad. Verlagsges.: Wiesbaden, Germany.
ANU), C. Green (ACTPCS), R. Humphries Humphries, K. B., 1979. Dynamics of a breeding frog
(formerly ANU), P. Johnson (former Cooma community. Ph.D. Thesir, Aurtnlian National Univerriry:
resident), J. Kanc (University of Canberra), Canberra.
R. 1.ongmore (ANCA), P. Ormay (ACTPCS), Ferraro, T. J. and Burgin, S., 1993. Reriex- of environ-
R. Pengilley (formerly ANU), T. Rutzou mental factnrr influerlcing the decline of Australian
(ACTPCS), K. Slater (formerly Canberra CAE), frogs. Pp. 205-18 in Herf,elology in Azulmlia; A Diverse
D. Smith (Australian Capital Territory Field Dirci/>linue d by D. Lunney and D. Ayes. Royal Zoological
Society of New South Wales: Morman.
Naturalist Association), D. Williams (UC) and
J. Wombey (CSIRO Wildlife and Ecology). We Laurance, W. F., McDonald. K. R. and Speer, R., in press.
thank R. Sadlier and A. Greer (Australian Epidemic disease and the catastrophic decline of Aust-
ralian rainforest frogs. Comemation Biology
kluseum), J. Coventry (Museum of Victoria)
and J. M'ombey (Australian National Wildlife I.itrlejohn, M. J., 1980. The frogs of French Island and Phillip
Collection) for their help in loan of specimens. Island. Vicloria~lN aturalis1 97: 232-34.
Lunney. D. and Ayers, D., 1993. l'he official status of frogs
REFERENCES and reptiles in new Sourh Wales. Pp. 40&08 in
He~petoloi~n Autmlia: A Diuprfe Diicif,line ed by
Bragg, N. A., 1960. Population fluctuations in the D. Lunney and 0.A yres. Royal Zoological Society of
amphibian fauna of Cleveland county, Okalahoma New South Wales: Mosman.
during the past twenty-five years. Southwert 1Vahrrolist5:
McDonald, K. R., 1990. KheobahachtL< Liem and Tauduljlur
16549.
Straughan and Lee (Anura: Leptodactylidae) in
Eungella National Park, Queensland: distribution and
Blaustein, A. R. and Wake, D. B., 1995. The puzzle of
declining amphibian populations. Scient@c American decline. Trans. Roy. Soc. Slh Au$l 114: 187-94.
April 1995: 5Ml. Mahony, M.. 1996. The decline of the Green and Golden
Hlaustein, A. R.. Hoffman, P. D., Hakit, D. G., Kiesecker, J. Bell Frog Litorin aurea viewed in the context of declines
and disappearances of other Australian frogs. Aul. Zool.
F., Walls, S. C. and Hays, J., 1994. UV repair and
30(2): 237-47.
resistance to solar UV-B in amohibaian e"ee"s : a link to
population declines? Proc. h'at. Acad. Sci. USA 91: Moore, J. A., 1961. The frogs of eastern New South Wales.
1791-95. Bul. Amer. Mu(.N al. Hkt. 121: 149-386.
Brook. A. J.. 1983. Atlas o f Australian Anura. Publication Osborne, W. S., 1986. Frogs of the Canberra region. Bngong
No. 7, Depanment of Zmlogy, University of Melbourne. 7: 10-12.
Cogger, H. C., 1992. Reptiles and Amphibians o/At~ctraliaR. ev. Osborne, W. S., 1990. Declining frog populations and
Ed. Reed: Sydney. extincrions in the Canberra region. Bogorrg 11: 4-7.
Australian Zoologist 30(2) 197
Osborne, W. S., 1992. Declines and extincrionr in popula- Thornson, S. A,, Littlejohn, M. J., Robinson. W. A, and
tions of frogs in the ACT: a discussion paper. Report Osborne, W. S., 1996. Taxonomy of the *L aurea
9218, Australian Capital Territory Parks and Conserva- complex: a re-evaluation of the Southern Tablelands
tion Service: Canberra. populations of the Australian Capital Territory and
New South Wales. Awt. 2001.3 0(2): 158-69.
Osborne, W. S.. 1989. Distrihurion relative abundance and
conservarion status of corroboree frogs. Preudophve Trennery, M. J.. Laurence, W. F. and McDonald, K. R.,
corroboree Moore (Anura: Myobatrachidae). Awl. Wild. 1994. Further evidence for rhe precipitous decline of
Res. 16: 53747. endemic rainforest frogs in tropical Australia. Pan*
Comemallon Biolugy 1: 150-53.
Pechmann, J. H. K., Scott. D. E., Semlitsch, R. D., Cadlwell,
J. P., Vitt, L. J. and Gibbons, J. W., 1991. Declining Tyler, M. J., 1976. Frqgs. Collins: Sydney.
amphibian popularions: The problem of separating
Tyler, M. J., 1991. Declining amphibian populations - a
human impacts from rtarural fluctuations. Science 253:
global phenomenon? An Australiarl perspective. Alyles
892-95.
9: 43-50.
Rauhala, M., 1993. The reptile, amphibian and marrirnal
van de Mortel. T. F. and Buttemer, W. A., 1996. Are LifaM
fauna of the Stony Creek Nature Reserve, Australian
auren eggs more sensitive to ultraviolecB radiation than
Capital Terrirory. Australian Capital Territory Parks
eggs of sympatric L, perai or L. &lalo? Aut. Zool.
and Conservarion Service, Technical Report No 6,
30(2): 150-57.
Canberra.
Watson, G. 'F. and Littlejohn, M. J., 1985. Patterns of
Rauhala, M., 1995. The reptile, amphibian and mammal
disrrihution, speciation and vicariance biogeography of
fauna of rhe Gigerline Nature Reserve, Australian
southeastern Australian amphibians. Pp. 91-97 in
Capital Territory. Australian Capital Terrirov Parks
Biolog)i VAwfralarian Fmgs and Reptila ed by G. Grigg,
and Conservation Service, Technical Repon No I I,
R. Shine and H. Ehmann. Surrey Beatty & Sons:
Canberra.
Sydney.
Richards, S. V., McDonald, K. R. and Alford, R. A., 1993.
Declines in of Australia's endemic tropical
rainforest frogs. Pnci)ic Conservation Biology 1: 6677.
Amphibian Biology
Edited by Harold Heatwole
"Amphibian Biology" is an ongoing series of books on all aspects of the life of amphibians. Each volume treats a
different subject and is designed to stand alone as a complete, up-to-date review of that topic. Collectively, the
various volumes provide a comprehensive and detailed account of the biology of frogs, toads, salamanders and
caecilians. All subjects are reviewed thoroughly and are documented exhaustively. Each chapter is written by one
or more of the principal authorities on that topic in the world. Consequently, the series has a truly international
flavour. In Volume One, for example, the authors of the 11 chapters come from six diflerent countries.
Volume One deals with the skin and discusser its structure and the way it develops. The multiple functions
this organ iulfills in amphibians are explained, including its role as an accessory respiratory organ, and as an
avenue of exchanging water and salts with the external environment. The importance of skin pigments in various
aspects of amphibian life also is discussed. Amphibians are unique in the variety and amount of skin secretions
they produce and the role these chemicals play in such vital processes as reproduction and defence are treated.
Finally, the chemistry of amphibian skin secretions is reviewed and the benefits to human health and comfort
arising from their use in the study or treatment of cancer, cardiovascular disease, mental disorders and bacterial
and fungal infections are described. They are also the source of important pain relievers.
"Amphibian Biology" will be the most authoritative single source of information on amphibians available for
years to come.
Volume 1 published 1994 710 PP Cad A l lllvrlrated colour, index
ISBN 0 949324 54 X (Vol. 1) ISBN 0 919324 53 1 (Set)
Volume 1 Aud $1 15
Volume hvo treats the social behaviour of amphibians, how they attract and compete for mates, care for their
young, defend territories, recognize each other, and how these activities are affected by hormones, and how they
evolved. This volume begins with an examination of variation in reproductive behaviour: Crump reviews choice
and structure of mating systems and the diversity in reproductive modes; Cerhardt and Schwanz discuss the
acoustic communication system used by Anurans; Mathis el a/, review studies of territoriality of salamanders and
Houck provides an overview of the ehdocrinological basis of sexual behaviour.
Volume 2 published lune 1995 298 pp Cased A4 lllurtrated dour, index
ISBN 0 949324 60 I (Vol. 21 ISBN 0 949324 53 1 (Set1
Aud $75
Available from bookshops or direct from the publisher
Surrey Beatty & Sons
43 Rickard Road, Chipping Nonon 21 70, NSW, Australia Telephone: [phone]
198 Australian Zoologisl30(2) May 1996