Forest and Land Management in Imperial China PDF
Preview Forest and Land Management in Imperial China
FOREST AND LAND MANAGEMENT IN IMPERIAL CHINA STUDIESONTHECHINESEECONOMY General Editors: Peter Nolan, Lecturer inEconomicsandPolitics, University of Cambridge, and Fellow and Director of Studies in Economics, Jesus College, Cambridge, England; and Dong Fureng, Professor, Chinese Academy ofSocial Sciences, Beijing, China This series analyses issues in China's current economic development, and sheds light upon that process by examining China's economic history. It contains a wide range of books on the Chinese economy past and present, and includes notonly studies written by leading Westernauthorities, butalso translations of the most important works on the Chinese economy produced within China. Itintends tomake amajorcontribution towardsunderstanding this immensely important partoftheworldeconomy. Publishedtitlesinclude: Dong Fureng INDUSTRIALIZATIONANDCHINA'SRURAL MODERNIZATION DuRunsheng (edited by Thomas R.Gottschang) REFORM ANDDEVELOPMENTINRURAL CHINA QimiaoFanandPeter Nolan(editors) CHINA'SECONOMIC REFORMS ChristopherFindlay,Andrew WatsonandHarry X.Wu(editors) RURAL ENTERPRISES INCHINA Gao Shangquan CHINA'SECONOMIC REFORM Michael Korzec LABOUR ANDTHE FAILURE OFREFORM INCHINA Nicholas K.Menzies FORESTANDLAND MANAGEMENTINIMPERIAL CHINA Ryoshin Minami THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTOFCHINA Forest and Land Management in Imperial China Nicholas K. Menzies FordFoundation Beijing M St.Martin's Press ©Nicholas K. Menzies 1994 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1994 978-0-333-60048-1 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WlP 9HE. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published in Great Britain 1994 by THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 978-1-349-39167-7 ISBN 978-0-230-37287-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230372870 First published in the United States of America 1994 by Scholarly and Reference Division, ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC., 175 Fifth A venue, New York, N.Y. 10010 ISBN 978-0-312-10254--2 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Menzies, Nicholas K. Forest and land management in Imperial China I Nicholas K. Menzies. p. em.-(Studies on the Chinese economy) Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. ISBN 978-0-312-10254--2 I. Forests and forestry--China-History. 2. Deforestation--China -History. 3. Forests and forestry-Economic aspects-China- -History. 4. Forest management-China-History. 5. Land tenure- -China-History. 6. China-History---Ch 'ing dynasty, 1644--1912. I. Title. II. Series. SD22l.M39 1994 333.75'0951 '0903---<lc20 93-42662 CIP Contents List ofMaps viii List ofTables ix Introduction 1. Forests in China 7 Forest Vegetation 7 Transforming the Environment: Land Clearance and Deforestation 10 North and North-West China 15 North-East and South China 19 The Circuitous Paths of Deforestation 20 Forces acting directly on the forest 21 Forces outside the forest 24 Value systems and cultural perceptions 25 2. Forest Stability and Decline: A Delicate Balance 35 The Problem of Deforestation 35 The Conservation of Natural Resources 39 The Conditions for Forest Management in China 45 Defining the resource 46 Boundaries and compliance 47 Sustainability 50 Summary 52 3. The Mulan Weichang Imperial Hunting Enclosure 55 Hunting, the Manchu Identity, and the Symbolism of Legitimation 57 Preservation of Nature as Political Imperative 61 The Demise of the Hunting Preserve 62 Conclusion 63 4. Temple and Monastic Forests 65 Secluded Mountains: the Landscape as a Resource 66 Normative, Coercive, and Remunerative Enforcement 68 Conclusion 72 v Vi Contents 5. Clans, Communities and Commons 75 Clan Lands 76 Communities and the Commons 78 The Setting for Communal Ownership 80 Management of Collective Lands 81 Clan and Village Forests and the Theory of Common Property 85 Conclusion 86 6. Trees in Agricultural Systems 89 Trees and Agriculture in South China 90 Market Linkages 93 Management of Cunninghamia and Pine 95 Ownership and Control of Trees 97 Forestry and Ethnic Minorities 99 Why Plant Trees: Enforcement or Incentives? 102 7. Beyond Timber: Fuelwood, Sericulture and Fungi 105 Fuelwood and Charcoal 105 Silk and Edible Fungi 108 8. In the Depths of the Mountains: Logging the Old Growth 111 Bandits, Logging, and the Pacification of the Wilderness 113 Economic Links: Markets and the timing of Logging Operations 116 Control and Enforcement 118 Constraints on Settlement and Conversion 120 9. Discussion and Conclusions 123 Enforcement and Compliance 123 Deforestation or Forest Management - some Issues 128 The need for forest products and services 129 The capacity for control 130 Adaptability and responses to change over time 133 Conclusion 136 Contents vii Appendix 139 Methods Used in the Study 139 Sources 140 Notes 143 References 155 References in Western Languages 155 References in Chinese and Japanese 165 Local and Temple Gazetteers 171 Personal Communications 171 Index 172 List of Maps 1 Systems of forest management in late imperial China 5 2 The vegetation of China and adjacent regions (from Wang Chi-wu 1961) 8 3 The vegetation zones of China (from Hou Xueyu et aI. 1982) 11 4 The forest zones of China 13 viii List of Tables 1 The vegetation zones of China 12 2 The forest zones of China 13 3 Forms of compliance in complex organisations 50 4 Forms of compliance in the six case studies 126 ix
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