Forest Amelioration

622 Pages·1984·15.418 MB·English

by  O. Riedl and D. Zachar (Eds.)

OTHER TITLES IN THIS SERIES
1. Plant Modification for More Efficient Water Use
by J. F. Stone (Editor)
1975 xii + 320 pp.
2. Tree Ecology and Preservation
by A. Bernatzky
1978 viii + 358 pp.
3. Cycling of Mineral Nutrients in Agricultural Ecosystems
by M. J. Frissel (Editor)
1978 viii + 356 pp.
4. Interactions Between Non-Pathogenic Soil. Microorganisms and Plants
by Y. R. Dommergues and S. V. Krupa (Editors)
1978 xii + 476 pp.
5. Ecology of Root Pathogens
by S. V. Krupa and Y. R. Dommergues (Editors)
1979 x + 282 pp.
6. Soil Disinfestation
by D. Mulder (Editor)
1979 xiv + 368 pp.
7. Management of Semi-arid Ecosystems
by Β. H. Walker (Editor)
1979 χ + 398 pp.
8. Management and Analysis of Biological Populations
by B. S. Goh
1980x + 288 pp.
9. Comparison of Forest Water and Energy Exchange Models
byS. Halldin (Editor)
1979 xi + 258 pp.
10. Alternative Methods of Agriculture
by R. Boeringa (Editor)
1980 vi + 200 pp.
11. Wetlands of Bottomland Hardwood Forests
by J. R. Clark and J. Benforado (Editors)
1981 xviii + 402 pp.
12. Plant Production and Management under Drought Conditions
by J. F. Stone and W. O. Willis (Editors)
1983 vii + 390 pp.
13. Evapotranspiration from Plant Communities
by M. L. Sharma (Editor)
1984 vii + 344 pp.
14. Forest Amelioration
by O. Riedl and D. Zachar
1984 viii +- 624 pp.
DEVELOPMENTS IN AGRICULTURAL
AND MANAGED-FOREST ECOLOGY 14
forest
amelioration
By
O. Riedl, Faculty of Forestry, Agricultural University, Brno and
D. Zachar, Forest Research Institute,Zvolen, Czechoslovakia
ELSEVIER
Amsterdam - Oxford - New York - Tokyo 1984
Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
and SZN, State Agricultural Publishing House,
Prague, Czechoslovakia
Translated by Eva Turkovâ,
Herta Kohnovâ, Robert Vesely
and Eudmila Papânkovâ
Translation Editor: Mark Cowan
Distribution of this book is being handled by the following publishers:
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for all remaining areas
Elsevier Science Publishers
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P.O. Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Library off Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Riedl, O. (Otakar)
Forest amelioration.
(Developments in agricultural and managed-forest ecology; 14)
Translantion of: Lesotechnické meliorace.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Forest influences. 2. Forestry engineering. 3. Watershed management. 4. Hydrology, Forest.
5. Soil conservation. 6. Forest protection. 7. Forest drainage.
I. Zachar, Dusan. II. Title. III. Series: Developments in agricultural and managed-forest ecology; v. 14
SD416.R5413 1984 634.9'56 84-4182
ISBN 0-444 99613-3
ISBN 0-444-99613-3 (Vol. 14)
ISBN 0-444-41515-7 (Series)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of the publishers.
Copyright © 1984 by Stâtni zemëdëlské nakladatelstvi, Praha
Printed in Czechoslovakia
List of Authors
Robert BINDER, Professor of Forest Constructions in the College of Forestry and Wood Technology
Zvolen, Czechoslovakia
Jifi KRESL, Assistant Professor of Forest Amelioration and Water Management in the Faculty of Forestry
Brno, Czechoslovakia
Otakar RIEDL, Professor of Forest Amelioration and Water Management in the Faculty of Forestry
Brno, Czechoslovakia
Leo SKATULA, Professor of Forest Amelioration and Water Management in the Faculty of Forestry
Brno, Czechoslovakia
Stanislav VOLNY, Assistant Professor of Forest Amelioration and Water Management in the Faculty of
Forestry Brno, Czechoslovakia
Dusan ZACHAR, Professor of Forestry Amelioration in the College of Forestry and Wood Technology
Zvolen, Czechoslovakia
Preface
The branch of science and practice generally referred to as Reclamation^and
Improvement of Forest Land and Ameliorative Treatments of Forest Land is defined
here as the complex of biological and engineering measures taken in forestry with
the aim to improve existing drainage conditions on small catchment areas, protect
forest land against erosion, control torrential flows, regulate the water economy of
forest soils, and improve the microclimatic conditions. It therefore follows from
this definition that realization of the measures will contribute to general improve­
ment of the landscape environment, to removal or neutralization of all the
agents that bring about disbalance in the environment and cause damage to it.
The primary concern of this branch of science and practice is seen in the solution
of a complex of problems that are closely associated with the hydrologie cycle;
through proper modifications the consequences of excess water, both on and below
the surface of the earth, are removed. The draining of excess water from waterlogged
forest soils, the improvement of the physical properties of soils and the reduction
of the losses of water by useless evaporation are other items included in this section.
The control of torrential flows and of gullies covers an important portion in the
whole complex of the measures applied. The operations involved in the control of
torrential flows and gullies are very costly, which indicates that they must be
approached most responsibly. Regulation of the watershed is closely connected with
these operations, too, as a first prerequisite to satisfy the drainage conditions
on torrential flows and, simultaneously, as a warranty for the level of efficiency
of invested capital—in the form of structures built on the stream proper. Moreover,
there are other tasks coming under this heading, for instance the consolidation of farm
land, the farming practices performed on sloping land, the protection of soils in areas
liable to landsliding and, above all, the designing of an appropriate network of roads.
The material washed out by rainwater tends to form accumulations in and shoaling
of the stream channels and ditches, and it may also deposit on the lower-lying fields.
The damage caused to farm land by wind erosion is generally of a lesser extent.
Vegetation is generally the most effective means of the wind erosion control. The
planting of shelterbelts and windbreaks provides sufficient protection here; simulta­
neously, vegetation contributes to improvement of the whole environment.
An independent chapter in this book includes subject matter on erosion control.
To discuss this problem in more detail has been found justifiable, for the devastation
of areas makes us take account on the immense losses due to the erosive action of
water. It is imperative for us to carry out detailed studies concerned with the origin,
progress, and control of erosion; further to detect and observe all the agents that are
responsible either for intensification or lessening of erosion. Otherwise it would be
hardly possible to scheme effective countererosion measures.
Much attention is given also to the use of vegetation and biological techniques
the incorporation of which features advantages over all others; they are least expensi­
ve, have longest service life and do not require any special maintenance. The dis-
VII
charge rates during and after storm flows can be reduced through the retention
function of forests. In this respect, the forest stand has a double role; it contributes
to balancing, regulation of the discharge rates and acts as a quantitative factor.
In the sphere of erosion control, forests cover the role of a protector of soils; they
retain sudden storm flows, enable the passage of the surface water into the subsurface
soil layers and, when managed along appropriate lines, they allow larger amounts
of water to pass jnto the soil and thus act towards a more effective use. Particular
attention is given here to influencing actively the water conservation function of
forests.
Finally, the methods are described which are used in Czechoslovakia and the
majority of European countries in solving problems characterized by analogous
features. In addition, some of the techniques developed in the U.S.S.R. and success­
fully tested here are described. This in particular refers to some formulae and dia­
grammatic illustrations.
In individual chapters the book includes subject matter on the following phases :
1. Scientific preparation (Hydraulics, Hydrology, Erosion)
2. The activities proper covered by the field (Soil and Water Conservation Function
of Forests, Torrent Control, Gully Control, Landslip Control, Avalanche
Control, Streambank Vegetation, Forest Shelterbelts, Role of Forests in Land
Reclamation and Improvement, Afforestation of Devastated Land)
3. The technologies used
Brno, January 1984 O. Riedl
VIII
CHAPTER I
Hydrology
Jifi Kresl
1. Hydrology as a Science
The science of hydrology is concerned with general water relationships, and the
laws that govern the circulation of water in the Earth, both in time and in space;
it takes a view of water as one of the Earth's components—the hydrosphere. SRIBNYJ
(1963) referred to hydrology as the physics of the hydrosphere.
Hydrology may be subdivided into oceanography (the hydrology of the seas),
and terrestial hydrology, which will be the subject under consideration here.
It terms of scientific method, hydrology encompasses hydrography, which deals
with the description of watercourses in different areas, hydrometry, which is con­
cerned with hydrological measurements, and general hydrology, in which the general
laws governing the processes of the hydrosphere are studied.
From the point of view of the particular environment in which water and its
movements are studied, we may differentiate between hydrometeorology (concerning
water in the atmosphere), potomology (concerning surface streams), limpology
(dealing with lakes and seas), pedohydrology (the study of soil water), geohydrology
(concerning the water of the rock strata of the Earth's crust), and glaciology (the
subject of glacier water).
The Importance of Hydrology in Forestry
Water plays an important role in forestry, not only because it is essential for the
growth of forest trees and the production of timber, but also because of its deleterious
influences on forest productivity. A deficiency of water leads to outbreaks of insect
pests; an overabundance of water leads to waterlogging in forests stands, and
water-mediated erosion. Thus a knowledge of the movement and properties of
water on a large scale forms an important part of the information foresters need to
acquire, and has been the basis on which flood control services have been established
in a number of countries. In recent years, a specialized branch of hydrology—forest
hydrology (die Forest-hydrologie, lesnaja gidrologia) has been developed.
The authors' forest hydrology studies are carried out mostly in regions where
systematic hydrological observations have not yet been made, in between small
watersheds where the basic hydrological data can only be obtained by field investiga­
tion. These studies have been relied upon as a source of material for this chapter,
and the reader is expected to be familiar with the basic concepts and terms of the
subject.
7
2. Th e Wate r Cycl e
The Occurrenc e of Wate r an d Wate r Resource s
Water i s present in all natura l materials, in minerals, rocks, an d living organisms.
It i s on e of the few component s of the Earth' s crust tha t are present in all know n
physical states—a s a gas, a liquid, an d a solid, an d these together mak e u p the
Earth's hydrospher e (which, together with the aerosphere an d lithosphère, represents
one o f the three basic elemental "spheres " of the Earth) .
The world' s oceans constitute the major source an d poin t6 of r2etur n for water
movement o n the Earth , their total are a being abou t 361 . 10 km , o r 71 % of the
surface o f the globe. Th e world3's w3ater resources, which are virtually unchanging,
are estimate d at 1 321 569.10 km ; of this, the oceans account for some 98.5 %.
According t o Rûzicka, the water resources of Czechoslovaki3a are as follows:
Soil wate r some 2 6 billion m 3
Water reservoir s 2 billion m 3
Ground wate r 6 billion 3m
In relatio n to the rainfall, amountin g t o some 94 billion m of water per year, these
resources o f water are very small, an d atmospheri c precipitation is therefore the major
source o f water in Czechoslovakia.
The Wate r Cycl e
Water exhibit s a n exceptionally high degree of mobility; the world' s water masses
in th e liquid or solid states mov e from higher elevations to lower elevations unde r
the influenc e of gravity, an d solar radiatio n transforms water in the solid state (by
Fig. 1 The hydrologie cycle. (VEN T E CHOW, 1964)
8
sublimation) and the liquid state (by evaporation) into the vapour phase. This
unceasing movement of water (the water cycle, or hydrological cycle) is represented
graphically in Fig. 1. It is interesting to note that only about 0.4 % of the hydrosphere
takes part in the hydrological cycle.
The Water Balance Equation
If we express the components of the water cycle in terms of comparable physical
units, a water balance equation may be drawn up for a given land area:
H = H + H _ + H + H + H + H + H + H + D + D + D +
s Qp 0p 0pv 0s Ep Er Et Ev 0 p n
+ D + D (1)
R z
where HHs — amount of rainfall for the given area
— surface runoff
o
p
H — ground water runoff
0pz
H — stream water runoff
o — deep percolation away from the area under consideration
s
— evaporation from the soil
— evaporation from the vegetation
"Ε.
H — transpiration
— evaporation from exposed water surfaces
E„
D„ — change in amount of atmospheric water
D — change in amount of soil water
P
DN — change in amount of stream and reservoir water
— change in amount of vegetation water
DR
— change in amount of fauna water
DZ
The equation may be simplified in the form
H = H + H + (Z - Z )
s 0 E K P
- total runoff
H- - total evaporation
E
Z - - initial resources of water in the area
p
z - - final resources of water in the area
K
If the water balance is drawn up for a period of one year, then the amount of
rainfall for a period of η years will be nH , the runoff will be nH , the evaporation
s 0
will be nH , and the initial resources of water (Z ) will have increased to Z . (The
E p K
water year in Czechoslovakia begins on November 1 of the previous year, and ends
on October 31 of the current year, and therefore since the heavy autumn and winter
rainfall has largely runoff before the end of the annual period, all the components
of the water balance equation can refer to the same time interval). The water balance
9
equation can then be written in the form
nH = nH + nH + (Z - Z ) (3)
s 0 E K P
and the mean for the period of η years will be
(4)
H = H + H + ^ Z ll
S 0 E
η
where H — mean rainfall during a period of η years
s
H — mean runoff during a period of η years
0
H — mean evaporation during a period of η years
E
If it can be assumed that throughout the years the total water resources remain
roughly the same, then the expression
Zk pZ
" -> Q
η
is equal to zero, and the water balance equation then takes the form
H = H + H (5)
S 0 E
Table 1
Basic Hydrological Data for Selected Watersheds in Europe
(according to different authors)
AArreeaa PPrreecciippii­­ RRuunnooffff Mean discharge
ttaattiioonnss HH00
WWaatteerrsshheedd HHss--HH00 HHss Qa specific
3SSPP 2 HHss HH00 3 1 3 _11 -2
10 km mm mm mm m s~ dm s km
Elbe (CSSR) 51.4 652 189 463 0.29 308 5.99
Elbe (Artlenburg) 134.9 601 158 443 0.26 675 5.00
Don 422 575 66 509 0.11
Dnepr 504 660 104 556 0.16
Danube (Komarno) 171.7 421 2 291 13.40
Danube (Sulina) 817 248 6 430 7.90
Loire 120 940 232 708 0.25
Vltava 28.1 640 169 471 0.26 150 5.4
Morava 26.7 631 141 490 0.21 115 4.3
Main 21.6 679 219 460 0.32
Oder (CSSR) 4.7 782 290 492 0.3-7 43.3 9.2
Oder 109.5 588 150 438 0.24 510 4.7
Rhine (Cologne) 144.3 911 472 439 0.52
Rhine 224 1 100 408 692 0.44 2 200 15.00
Seine 78.6 890 212 678 0.24
Van 10.6 926 451 475 0.49 152.0 14.3
Weser 14.8 721 269 452 0.37
Wisla 193.0 620 158 462 0.28 970 5.7
10