Foods: Experimental Perspectives (Pearson New International Edition)

591 Pages·2013·18.299 MB·English

by  Margaret McWilliams

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a Foods
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s Experimental Perspectives

Margaret McWilliams

ISBN 978-1-29202-099-0 7
e Seventh Edition
9 781292 020990
Foods
Experimental Perspectives
Margaret McWilliams
Seventh Edition
ISBN 10: 1-292-02099-7
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02099-0
Pearson Education Limited
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ISBN 10: 1-292-02099-7
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02099-0
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P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R AR Y
Table of Contents
Glossary
Margaret McWilliams 1
1. Dimensions of Food Studies
Margaret McWilliams 19
2. The Research Process
Margaret McWilliams 47
3. Sensory Evaluation
Margaret McWilliams 65
4. Objective Evaluation
Margaret McWilliams 91
5. Water
Margaret McWilliams 115
6. Physical Aspects of Food Preparation
Margaret McWilliams 129
7. Overview of Carbohydrates
Margaret McWilliams 153
8. Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Sweeteners
Margaret McWilliams 167
9. Starch
Margaret McWilliams 197
10. Vegetables and Fruits
Margaret McWilliams 221
11. Overview of Fats and Oils
Margaret McWilliams 263
12. Fats and Oils in Food Products
Margaret McWilliams 279
I
333344455550259259146771333717317
13. Overview of Proteins
Margaret McWilliams 307
14. Milk and Milk Products
Margaret McWilliams 321
15. Meats, Fish, and Poultry
Margaret McWilliams 353
16. Eggs
Margaret McWilliams 393
17. Dimensions of Baking
Margaret McWilliams 423
18. Baking Applications
Margaret McWilliams 457
19. Food Safety Concerns and Controls
Margaret McWilliams 491
20. Food Preservation
Margaret McWilliams 517
21. Food Additives
Margaret McWilliams 543
Color Plates
Margaret McWilliams 561
Index 577
II
Glossary
From the Glossary of Foods: Experimental Perspectives, Seventh Edition, Margaret McWilliams. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson
Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 1
Glossary
A band Total portion of the sarcomere in which thick and Aflatoxin Carcinogenic mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus
thin myofilaments overlap; includes the H band. flavusand Aspergillus parasiticus.
Acesulfame-K Low-calorie sweetener derived from acetoacetic Aftertaste The aromatic message of the flavor impression that
acid. lingers after food has been swallowed.
α-amylase Amylose-digesting enzyme contained in abundance Aging (maturing) of flour Chemical process to modify the
in egg yolk and to a lesser extent in egg white. sulfhydryl groups in flour to disulfide linkages, usually utilizing
α-lactose Less soluble form of lactose, the disaccharide a chlorine-containing compound.
prominent in milk; form of lactose that is largely responsible Aging (of meat) Holding of meat while it passes through
for the sandy texture of some ice creams. rigor mortis and sometimes for a period extending several
Acidophilus milk Fermented milk product (usually whole days or even two weeks, depending on the quality and type
of carcass; storage of meat to enhance tenderness.
milk) to which Lactobacillus acidophilus is added to digest
the lactose. Air cell Space between the inner and outer shell membranes
Acrolein A highly irritating and volatile aldehyde formed at the large end of an egg.
when glycerol is heated to the point at which two molecules Albumen White of an egg; consists of three layers.
of water split from it. Albumen index Grading measurement of albumen to deter-
Acrylamide Carcinogen formed in starchy fried foods and mine quality on the basis of the amount of thick white.
also in baked products. Aldose Hexose with one carbon atom external to the
Actin Myofibrillar protein existing primarily in two forms 6-membered ring.
(Fand G). Alitame Sweetener resulting from combining L-aspartic acid,
Actinidin Proteolytic enzyme in kiwi fruit. D-alanine, and an amine.
Active dry yeast Granular form of dried Saccharomyces cere- Alliin Odorless precursor in garlic that ultimately is converted
visiae (8 percent moisture); storage is at room temperature to diallyl disulfide.
and rehydration at 40–46°C (104–115°F). Alliinase Enzyme in garlic responsible for catalyzing the
Actomyosin Protein complex of actin and myosin that forms conversion of alliin to diallyl thiosulfinate, the precursor of
to effect contraction of the sarcomere. diallyl disulfide.
Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) Enzyme in muscle Allium Genus including onions, chives, garlic, shallots and
tissue involved in glycolytic reactions leading to lactic acid leeks; unique for its sulfur-containing flavor compounds.
formation. All-purpose flour Multi-use flour made from hard wheat or a
Aerobic Requiring oxygen for survival and growth. mixture of hard and soft wheat; contains about 10.5 percent
Affective testing Sensory testing to determine acceptability protein.
or preference between products. Alpha (α) crystals Extremely fine and unstable fat crystals.
Aflatoxicosis Condition caused by ingesting aflatoxin; begins Amebic dysentery Protozoan infection characterized by
with nausea and vomiting but ends with convulsions, coma, diarrhea of varying severity (sometimes containing mucus
and death. and blood) and sometimes more severe symptoms.
2
Glossary
Amorphous Form of solid lacking an organized, crystalline Bacillus coagulans Anaerobic bacillus that digests sugar to
structure. lactic acid in canned foods to cause flat-sour spoilage.
Amorphous candies Candies that lack an organized crys- Baked custard Sweetened milk and egg mixture that is
talline structure because of their very high concentration of baked without agitation until the egg protein coagulates and
sugar or interfering substances. forms a gel.
Amphoteric Capable of functioning as either an acid or a Baking ammonia Ammonium salt of carbonic acid [(NH ) CO ]
42 3
base, depending on the pH of the medium in which the that dissolves to release ammonia, carbon dioxide, and water
compound is found. for leavening springerle and other rather dry cookie doughs,
Amygdalin Cyanogenic glycoside in apricot and peach pits crackers, and biscotti.
that can cause cyanide poisoning if consumed. Baking powder Mixture of acid and alkaline salts and a stan-
Amylograph Device designed to control the temperature of dardizing agent to produce at least 12 percent of the carbon
a starch paste and to measure its viscosity. dioxide available for leavening.
Amylopectin Branched fraction of starch consisting primarily Basmati rice Long-grain, aromatic rice.
of glucose units linked with 1,4-α-glucosidic linkages, but Benzoyl peroxide Food additive approved by the FDA for
interrupted occasionally with a 1,6-α-linkage resulting in a bleaching the xanthophylls in refined flours.
very large polysaccharide. Beta prime (β') crystals Very fine and reasonably stable fat
Amylose Straight-chain, slightly soluble starch fraction crystals.
consisting of glucose units joined by 1,4-α-glucosidic
Beta ray Radiant energy that is very slightly longer than
linkages.
gamma rays and that can penetrate food, but not aluminum.
Anaerobic Requiring an oxygen-free environment for survival
Betacyanins Group of betalains responsible for the reddish-
and growth.
purple color of beets; not an anthocyanin, but behaves
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) Statistical approach to deter- colorwise in the same fashion.
mining differences between many sets of data.
Betalains Two groups of pigments (betacyanins and betaxan-
Angel food cake Foam cake containing an egg white foam, thins) that contribute the anthocyanin-like color to beets, but
sugar, and cake flour. differ chemically from the anthocyanins.
Angstrom (Å) Unit of measure; for example, 1 cm = Bicarbonate of soda Alkaline food ingredient (NaHCO )
3
100,000,000 Å. used to react with acids to form carbon dioxide.
Anthocyanidin Anthocyanin-type pigment that lacks a sugar
Biotechnology Development of new products by making a
in its structure.
genetic modification in a living organism.
Anthocyanin Flavonoid pigment in which the oxygen in the
Birefringence Refraction of light in two slightly different
central ring is positively charged.
directions.
Anthoxanthin Flavonoid pigment in which the oxygen in
Biscuit Quick bread with a ratio of about 3:1 (flour to liquid)
the central ring does not carry an electrical charge.
and also containing fat cut into small particles, baking powder,
Arborio rice Medium-grain rice used for making paella and and salt; usually kneaded and rolled, but sometimes dropped.
risotto.
Biscuit method Mixing method in which the dry ingredients
Ascaris lumbricoides Type of parasitic roundworm that may are combined, the fat is cut into small particles in the flour
be present in some seafood and may cause illness leading to mixture, all of the liquid is added at once and stirred in just
possible pneumonia if food is not heated enough to kill it. to blend, and the dough is kneaded; a flaky product results.
Aspartame Very sweet, low-calorie methylated dipeptide Blast freezing Freezing in air-blast freezers with frigid (from
composed of phenylalanine and aspartic acid; used as a –30 to –45°C) air circulating at a high velocity; causes rapid
high-intensity sweetener. freezing and small ice crystals.
Aspergillus flavus Mold capable of making aflatoxin in nuts, Bleaching Refining step in which coloring and flavoring con-
grains, and legumes stored under moist, warm conditions. taminants are removed from fats, often by filtration through
Aspergillus parasiticus Mold capable of making aflatoxin active charcoal or other suitable substrate.
in stored nuts, grains, and legumes. Bloom Granular-appearing, discolored areas on the surface
Astaxanthin Reddish-orange carotenoid pigment in salmon of chocolate, the result of melting of less stable crystals and
and in cooked crustaceans. recrystallization as βcrystals.
Astringency Puckery feeling in the mouth created by com- Bloom (eggs) Natural protective coating sealing the shell
pounds such as tannins. pores when an egg is laid.
Autoxidation Oxidation reaction capable of continuing easily Bloom gelometer Modification of a penetrometer designed
with little added energy. especially for measuring the tenderness of gels.
Avidin Albumen protein that binds biotin when in the native Boiling point Temperature at which vapor pressure of a
state, but not when it is denatured. liquid just exceeds atmospheric pressure.
Beta (ββ) crystals Extremely coarse and, therefore, undesir- Botulism Potentially fatal food poisoning results from ingest-
able fat crystals. ing even a minuscule amount of toxin produced by
Clostridium botulinum.
Bacillary dysentery Food-borne illness characterized by
severe diarrhea and electrolyte loss, accompanied by intense Bound water Water that is bound to other substances and no
abdominal cramps and a high fever and capable of ending in longer exhibits the flow properties and solvent capability
death. commonly associated with water.
3
Glossary
Bran Outer layers (fibrous and very high in cellulose) encas- Chalaziferous layer Membranous layer surrounding the
ing the interior endosperm and germ of cereal grains. vitelline membrane of egg yolk.
Bread flour Hard wheat, long-patent flour with a protein Chiffon cake Foam cake that includes oil and egg yolk as
level of about 11.8 percent. liquid ingredients, an egg white foam, baking powder, sugar,
and cake flour.
Brix scale Hydrometer scale designed to indicate the percent-
age concentration of sugar in sugar solutions. Cholera Food-borne illness especially problematic in tropical
areas around the world; caused by Vibrio cholerae.
Bromelain Proteolytic enzyme in pineapple.
Chlorophyll a Blue-green, more abundant form of chloro-
Bt Designation that a seed has been modified by splicing a
phyll; the chlorophyll form in which the R group is a methyl
gene from Bacillus thuringiensis to promote resistance to
group.
insects.
Chlorophyll b Yellowish-green form of chlorophyll in which
Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) Antioxidant effective in
the R group is an aldehyde group.
animal fats used in baking.
Chlorophyllase Plant enzyme that splits off the phytyl group
Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) Antioxidant used to retard
to form chlorophyllide from chlorophyll.
oxidation in animal fats.
Chlorophyllide Chlorophyll molecule minus the phytyl
Cage-free eggs Eggs laid by hens raised on the floor of a
group; water-soluble derivative of chlorophyll responsible
building rather than in cages.
for the light-green tint of water in which green vegetables
Cake flour Soft wheat, short-patent flour (about 7.5 percent have been cooked.
protein).
Chlorophyllin Abnormal green pigment formed when the
Calcium-activated factor (CAF) Proteolytic enzyme acti- methyl and phytyl groups are removed from chlorophyll in
vated by calcium; contributes to tenderizing of aging meats. an alkaline medium.
Campylobacteriosis Food-borne illness caused by toxin from Chloroplast Type of plastid containing chlorophyll.
Campylobacter jejuni(or other toxin-producing strains).
Cholesterol A sterol found in abundance in egg yolk.
Campylobacter jejuni Common strain of Campylobacter
Chromatography Separation of discrete chemical com-
that can cause campylobacteriosis.
pounds from a complex mixture by the use of solvents or
Canola oil Oil from rape (Brassica napus) seeds, a geneti- gases; separation may be accomplished by use of a GLC or a
cally modified variety of rape. HPLC or by other somewhat less sophisticated means.
Capsaicinoids Capsaicin and related compounds responsible Chromoplast Type of plastid containing carotenoids.
for the fiery quality of chili and other peppers.
CIE Commission Internationale de L’Eclairage; group that
Caramelization Fragmentation of monosaccharide into a established a system of measuring color based on spectral
variety of compounds, including organic acids, aldehydes, color, degree of saturation, and brightness.
and ketones, as a result of extremely intense heat.
Ciguatera poisoning Food-borne illness caused by cigua-
Carotenes Group of carotenoids containing only hydrogen toxin produced in fish that have eaten the algae Gambierdicus
and carbon in a polymer of isoprene. toxicus.
Carotenoids Class of pigments contributing red, orange, or Circumvallate papillae Large, obvious protuberances
yellow color as a result of the resonance provided by the always containing taste buds and distinguished easily
isoprene polymers. because they form a “V” near the back of the tongue.
Casein Collective name for milk proteins precipitated at pH 4.6. Cisconfiguration An arrangement in which the hydrogen is
Casein micelle Casein aggregate that is comparatively stable attached to the carbon atoms on either end of the double
and remains colloidally dispersed unless a change such as a bond from the same direction, causing a lower melting point
shift toward the isoelectric point or the use of rennin desta- than its transcounterpart.
bilizes and precipitates casein. Climacteric Period of maximum respiratory rate just prior to
Case-ready meats Meats that are processed and packaged in the full ripening of many fleshy fruits.
retail packaging at a centralized site for distribution ulti- Climacteric fruit Fruit that continues to ripen after it has
mately to retail markets. been picked—for example, bananas and peaches.
Catechins Flavonoid pigments that are a subgroup of the Clostridium botulinum Anaerobic spore-forming bacteria
flavonols. that can produce a highly poisonous toxin capable of killing
Cathepsins Group of proteolytic enzymes that can catalyze people.
hydrolytic reactions leading to the passing of rigor mortis. Clostridium nigrificans Bacteria capable of producing
Cellulose Complex carbohydrate composed of glucose units hydrogen sulfide in canned foods to cause sulfide spoilage.
joined together by 1,4-β-glucosidic linkages. Clostridium perfringens Anaerobic, spore-forming bac-
Certified raw milk Milk that has a small microorganism pop- terium that can produce a toxin capable of causing a mild
ulation but has not been heat treated, and, therefore, may food-borne illness.
cause serious illness. Coagulation Precipitation of protein as molecules aggregate
Cestodes Parasitic tapeworms, some of which use humans as (often as a result of energy input, such as heating or beating).
hosts; possible food sources are various meats and fish that Coldpack (club) cheese Cheese product made by adding an
have been undercooked or eaten raw. emulsifier to a mixture of natural cheeses.
Chalazae Thick, rope-like extensions of the chalaziferous Cold point Coldest area of food in a can being heat
layer that aid in centering the yolk in the egg. processed.
4
Glossary
Cold pressing Mechanical pressing of olives to express oil Convection Transfer of heat by the circulation of currents of
without heat, resulting in an oil of excellent purity. hot air or liquid resulting from the change in density when
heated.
Cold shortening Severe contraction of muscles in carcasses
that have been chilled too quickly and severely after slaughter. Convection oven Oven designed with enhanced circulation
Collagen Fibrous protein composed of three strands of of heated air to increase heating by convection, reduce bak-
tropocollagen. ing time, and promote optimal crust browning.
Collenchyma tissue Aggregates of elongated collenchyma Conventional method Mixing method in which fat and
cells providing supportive structure to various plant foods, sugar are creamed, beaten eggs are added, and dry ingre-
notably vegetables. dients (a third at a time) and liquid ingredients (half at
each time) are added alternately; fine texture and excellent
Colloid Material with a particle size between 0.001 and
storage qualities are advantages of this laborious method.
1 millimicron.
Conventional sponge method Method of making cakes in
Colloidal dispersion Two-phase system in which the parti-
which part of the sugar and all of the egg are withheld to
cles in the dispersed phase are between 0.001 and 1 micron
make a sugar-stabilized meringue that is folded into the cake
in diameter.
batter as the final step in its preparation.
Color-difference meter Objective machine, such as the
Cooking losses Total losses from meat by evaporation and
Hunter color-difference meter or Gardner color-difference
dripping during cooking.
meter; capable of measuring color difference between samples
utilizing the CIE or Munsell color systems. Corn syrup Sweet syrup of glucose and short polymers
produced by the hydrolysis of cornstarch.
Commercially sterile Food that has been heat processed
enough to kill all pathogenic microorganisms and spores. Correlational research Research that determines interrela-
tionships between variables.
Comminuted meats Products made by almost pulverizing
meats and adding the desired fat and salts before heating the Creaming Separation of fat from the aqueous portion of milk
resulting mixture. that takes place when fat globules cluster into larger aggre-
gates and rise to the surface of milk.
Complex carbohydrates Polysaccharides, such as starch and
cellulose. Cross-linked starch Starch produced under alkaline con-
ditions, usually in combination with acetic or succinic
Composite ice cream Frozen dessert containing at least
anhydride; notable as a thickener and stabilizing agent that
8 percent milk fat and 18 percent total milk solids and no
undergoes minimal retrogradation.
more than 0.5 percent edible stabilizer; flavoring particles are
not to exceed 5 percent by volume. Cruciferae Family of vegetables including Brussels sprouts,
cabbage, rutabagas, turnips, cauliflower, kale, and mustard;
Compressed yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae in a corn-
includes sulfur-containing flavor compounds that differ from
starch-containing cake with a moisture level of 72 percent;
those found in Alliumvegetables.
requires refrigerated storage; dispersion is best at 32 to 38°C
(89 to 100°F). Crustaceans Shrimp, lobsters, crabs, and other shellfish with
Compressimeter Objective equipment that measures the a horny covering.
force required to compress a food sample to a predeter- Cryogenic liquids Substances that are liquid (not solids) at
mined amount. extremely cold temperatures.
Conalbumin Protein in egg albumen capable of complexing Cryophilic Microorganisms with optimal reproduction and
with iron (Fe+3) and copper (Cu+2) ions to form red and survival below 15°C (59°F).
yellow colors, respectively.
Crystalline candies Candies with organized crystalline areas
Concatenation A linking together; nonspecific description and some liquid (mother liquor).
of the association of glutenin molecules by disulfide
Cultured buttermilk Low fat or nonfat milk containing
linkages.
S. lactis and L. bulgaricus that has been incubated to pro-
Conduction Transfer of energy from one molecule to the duce some lactic acid.
adjacent molecule in a continuing and progressive fashion so
Curd Milk precipitate that contains casein and forms readily
that heat can pass from its source, through a pan, and ulti-
in an acidic medium.
mately throughout the food being cooked.
Cyclamate Sweetener widely used in the world but banned
Cones Cone-shaped dendrites of photoreceptor neurons that
in the United States.
enhance the sharpness of visual images and add the dimen-
sion of color to vision. Cyclodextrins (a, b, g CD) Cyclic compounds containing
6–8 glucose units derived from starch by bacterial enzymes
Conjugated proteins Proteins combined with some other
(cyclodextrin glucosyl transferases).
type of compound, such as a carbohydrate or lipid.
Dark-cutting beef Very dark, sticky beef from carcasses in
Consistometer Device for measuring the spread or flow of
which the pH dropped to only about 6.6.
semisolid foods in a specified length of time.
Degradation Opening of the ring structure as the prelude to
Consumer panel Sensory evaluation panel selected from
the breakdown of sugars.
people who happen to be available at a test site and are will-
ing to participate. Denaturation Relaxation of the tertiary structure to the
secondary structure, accompanied by decreasing solubility
Continuous phase Medium surrounding all parts of the dis-
of a protein.
persed phase so that it is possible to pass throughout the
emulsion in the continuous phase without traversing any Denatured globin hemichrome A gray-brown pigment
portion of the dispersed phase. formed when myoglobin is heated.
5