Food Chemical Safety: Additives Volume II

323 Pages·2002·3.41 MB·English

by  David H. Watson

Food chemical safety
Volume 2: Additives
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Food chemical safety

Volume 2: Additives
Edited by
David H. Watson
Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited
Abington Hall, Abington
Cambridge CB1 6AH
England
www.woodhead-publishing.com
Published in North America by CRC Press LLC
2000 Corporate Blvd, NW
Boca Raton FL 33431
USA
First published 2002, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC
@ 2002, Woodhead Publishing Limited
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Woodhead Publishing Limited ISBN 1 85573 563 6
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Cover design by The ColourStudio
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Typeset by MHL Typesetting Limited, Coventry, Warwickshire
Printed by TJ International, Padstow, Cornwall, England
Contents
List of contributors ..................................................... xi

Part I General issues ................................................. 1

1 Introduction ...................................................... 3

D. Watson, Food Standards Agency, London
1.1 Background .................................................. 3

1.2 Controls on additives ........................................ 5

1.3 Future work on additives .................................... 7

1.4 Acknowledgement and dedication ........................... 11

1.5 References ................................................... 11

2 The regulation of additives in the EU ........................... 12

D. W. Flowerdew, Consultant (formerly Leatherhead Food RA)
2.1 Introduction .................................................. 12

2.2 The key directives ........................................... 13

2.3 Future developments ......................................... 27

2.4 Sources of further information and advice ................... 29

2.5 References ................................................... 30

Appendix: List of E numbers of permitted additives ......... 32

3 The regulation of additives in the USA ......................... 42

P. Curtis, North Carolina State University, Raleigh
3.1 Introduction .................................................. 42

3.2 Food additive laws and amendments ......................... 43

3.3 Federal agencies responsible for enforcement ................ 45
vi Contents
3.4 Generally recognized as safe (GRAS) substances ............ 46

3.5 Prior sanctioned substances .................................. 47

3.6 Color additives .............................................. 47

3.7 Pesticide residues............................................. 48

3.8 Setting tolerance levels ....................................... 49

3.9 The approval process ........................................ 50

3.10 References ................................................... 57

Part II Analysing additives ........................................... 59

4 Risk analysis of food additives .................................. 61

D. R. Tennant, Consultant, UK
4.1 Introduction ................................................. 61

4.2 Hazard identification in the food chain ...................... 62

4.3 Dose-response characterisation .............................. 63

4.4 Exposure analysis ............................................ 64

4.5 Risk evaluation .............................................. 75

4.6 Methods for risk management ............................... 75

4.7 Risk communication .......................................... 76

4.8 Future trends.................................................. 76

4.9 Conclusion.................................................... 77

4.10 Sources of further information and advice .................... 77

4.11 References ................................................... 78

5 Analytical methods: quality control and selection .............. 79

R. Wood, Food Standards Agency, Norwich
5.1 Introduction ................................................. 79

5.2 Legislative requirements ..................................... 80

5.3 FSA surveillance requirements................................ 83

5.4 Laboratory accreditation and quality control ................. 83

5.5 Proficiency testing ........................................... 89

5.6 Analytical methods .......................................... 95

5.7 Standardised methods of analysis for additives .............. 99

5.8 The future direction for methods of analysis ................ 102

5.9 References ................................................... 103

Appendix: Information for potential contractors on the

analytical quality assurance requirements for food chemical

surveillance exercises......................................... 104

6 New methods in detecting food additives ....................... 111

C. J. Blake, Nestle´ Research Centre, Lausanne
6.1 Introduction ................................................. 111

6.2 Reference or research methods .............................. 112

6.3 Rapid or alternative methods ................................. 127

6.4 Future trends ................................................ 131
Contents vii

6.5 Sources of further information and advice ................... 132

6.6 References ................................................... 134

7 Adverse reactions to food additives ............................. 145

M. A. Kantor, University of Maryland
7.1 Introduction .................................................. 145

7.2 Consumer attitudes about food additives ..................... 146

7.3 Reporting adverse reactions .................................. 147

7.4 Controversial food additives ................................. 150

7.5 Summary and conclusions ................................... 162

7.6 Future trends and directions .................................. 165

7.7 Sources of further information and advice ................... 165

7.8 References ................................................... 166

Part III Specific additives ............................................ 171

8 Colorants ....................................................... 173

F. Jack Francis, University of Massachusetts, Amherst
8.1 Introduction .................................................. 173

8.2 Food, drug and cosmetic colorants ........................... 174

8.3 Carotenoid extracts .......................................... 178

8.4 Lycopene .................................................... 181

8.5 Lutein ....................................................... 182

8.6 Annatto and saffron .......................................... 183

8.7 Paprika ....................................................... 184

8.8 Synthetic carotenoids ........................................ 186

8.9 Anthocyanins ................................................ 187

8.10 Betalains ..................................................... 190

8.11 Chlorophylls ................................................. 191

8.12 Tumeric ...................................................... 192

8.13 Cochineal and carmine ....................................... 193

8.14 Monascus ..................................................... 195

8.15 Iridoids ...................................................... 196

8.16 Phycobilins .................................................. 198

8.17 Caramel ...................................................... 199

8.18 Brown polyphenols .......................................... 200

8.19 Titanium dioxide ............................................. 201

8.20 Carbon black ................................................. 202

8.21 Miscellaneous colorants....................................... 202

8.22 Outlook ...................................................... 203

8.23 References ................................................... 203
viii Contents
9 Safety assessment of flavor ingredients ......................... 207

K. R. Schrankel and P. L. Bolen, International Flavors & Fragrances,
Union Beach and R. Petersen, International Flavors & Fragrances,
Dayton
9.1 Introduction: definition and use of flavoring substances ..... 207

9.2 The range and sources of flavoring ingredients .............. 208

9.3 Basic principles of safety evaluation ........................ 209

9.4 Regulatory groups ........................................... 216

9.5 References ................................................... 224

10 Sweeteners 228

G. von Rymon Lipinski, Nutrovina Nutrition Specialities and Food

Ingredients GmbH, Frankfurt

10.1 Introduction ................................................. 228

10.2 Definitions ................................................... 229

10.3 Functionality and uses ....................................... 229

10.4 The available sweeteners ..................................... 232

10.5 Sweetener safety testing ..................................... 233

10.6 Case study: Acesulfame K ................................... 234

10.7 Other sweeteners ............................................ 236

10.8 Regulatory status ............................................ 242

10.9 Analytical methods .......................................... 244

10.10 Outlook ...................................................... 244

10.11 Summary .................................................... 245

10.12 Bibliography ................................................. 245

10.13 References ................................................... 246

11 Food additives, other than colours and sweeteners ............. 249

Brian Whitehouse, Consultant, UK
11.1 Introduction: classifying the range of additives .............. 249

11.2 The regulatory background .................................. 254

11.3 Acceptable daily intake (ADI) ............................... 255

11.4 JECFA safety evaluation .................................... 255

11.5 Summary .................................................... 257

Appendix 1: Specifications for food additives ................ 258

Appendix 2: Acceptable daily intake (ADI) values and

references by additive category............................... 266

Appendix 3: Acceptable daily intake (ADI) values and

references by additive name .................................. 274

11.6 Bibliography ................................................. 282

12 Case study: antioxidant preservatives ........................... 283

K. M´ıkova´, Institute of Chemical Technology, Prague
12.1 Introduction ................................................. 283

12.2 Toxicological aspects ........................................ 284
Contents ix

12.3 The Codex Alimentarius ..................................... 286

12.4 The regulation of antioxidants in the EU .................... 288

12.5 The regulation of antioxidants in the USA ................... 291

12.6 The regulation of antioxidants in Australia .................. 295

12.7 The regulation of antioxidants in Japan ...................... 296

12.8 Future trends ................................................. 296

12.9 Sources of further information and advice ................... 298

12.10 References ................................................... 298

Index ....................................................... 300