Focus on Aikido and Related Martial Arts

13 Pages·2016·0.26 MB·English

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Friedman HL., Using Aikido and transpersonal concepts for reconciling conflict

Using Aikido and Transpersonal Psychology
Concepts as Tools for Reconciling Conflict:
Focus on Aikido and Related Martial Arts, Such
as Hapkido

Harris L. Friedman*
ABSTRACT
Aikido, and related martial arts, such as Hapkido, offer insights for reconciling conflict at intrapersonal,
interpersonal, organizational, and global levels. How these operate can be understood scientifically using
psychological concepts, especially from transpersonal and transcultural psychology. Some basic approaches for
applying these principles are explained, and case examples of their application across different levels for
reconciling conflict are provided.
Key Words: Aikido, conflict, Hapkido, reconciliation, transpersonal, transcultural
DOI Number: 10.14704/nq.2016.14.2.938 NeuroQuantology 2016; 2: 213-225

Introduction1 Aikido’s potential for reconciling conflict,
including at the intrapersonal, interpersonal,
Aikido is often presented as a martial art that
organizational, and even global levels. These
reconciles conflict, rather than one that focuses
situate Aikido within a scientific, albeit a very
merely on winning and losing. Its founder,
open-minded and broad, framework, that
Morehei Ueshiba (n.d., n.p.), is frequently quoted
provides a naturalistic lens through which to
as stating: “Aiki is not a technique to fight with or
examine pathways for reconciling conflict.
defeat an enemy. It is the way to reconcile the
world and make human beings one family.”
Conceptual tools from psychology, especially
Aikido
transpersonal and transcultural psychology,
provide avenues to deepen the understanding of Aikido is usually seen as an unarmed grappling
skill emphasizing circular motions to defensively
outmaneuver attackers. Aikido is often presented
Corresponding author: Harris L. Friedman, Ph.D. as being soft and non-competitive, but hard combat
Address: Psychology and Mental Health Counseling Program,
techniques and competition through tournaments
Goddard College, 123 Pitkin Road, Plainfield, Vermont 05667, USA
Phone: + 1-800-468-4888 are also part of current martial arts using that
e-mail  [email protected] name. Aikido evolved from precursor forms of
Relevant conflicts of interest/financial disclosures: The author
declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any Aikijitsu, combat systems used for temporary
commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a survival when a weapon was not at hand. If a
potential conflict of interest.
warrior were to become disarmed in battle or be
This article was adapted and expanded from the following book
chapter: Friedman, H. (2015). Using Aikido and transpersonal in a situation where carrying weapons were
psychology concepts as tools for reconciling conflict. In W. Wagner forbidden, unarmed fighting skills were required
(Ed.), Ai-Ki-Dô: The trinity of conflict transformation (pp. 115-135).
for self-preservation. Aikido’s typical strategy of
New York, NY: Springer. Reprinted with permission from publisher.
Received: 07 May 2016; Revised: 08 May 2016; avoiding direct use of force stemmed from

Accepted: 15 May 2016
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Friedman HL., Using Aikido and transpersonal concepts for reconciling conflict
practicality, as it would not be very effective in that occurred, about half of my dojo members
general for an unarmed warrior to attempt to use remained loyal to the founder’s son and the other
force against armed opponents. Likewise, its half formed a new dojo following Tohei’s Ki
practice retains vestiges of its original cultural Society, a spin-off group. Unable to accept such a
context, such as emphasizing techniques derived split within a martial art claiming spiritual
from the traditional use of the Japanese katana privilege and the ability to reconcile conflict, I left
sword and relying heavily on wrist techniques Aikido practice for nearly a decade to practice
shaped by responding to the types of protective other martial arts. Since then, I have returned to
armoring traditionally used by Japanese warriors Aikido, in which I now hold the rank of third-
that resisted attacks to the main part of the body degree black-belt, but I do not practice Aikido
while leaving the wrists exposed as a vulnerable exclusively and have also recently taken the rank of
target. These evolutionary opportunities and fourth-degree black-belt in Hapkido (Kim and Lee,
challenges led Aikido to develop in such a way 1988), a Korean martial art closely related to
that it could be later used for so-called higher Aikido. Consequently, I see much of Aikido’s
purposes, such as reconciling conflict and rhetoric about its noble purposes as more
spiritual development. aspirational than achieved, especially as applied to
its own organizational difficulties. This is nothing
Like many contemporary martial arts
new, however, as exemplified by a Japanese saying
transitioning from earlier and brutal forms of
I paraphrase from memory: “I am following the
combat, Aikido dropped the suffix “jitsu” and
path of my master, as he left his master to start a
replaced it with “Do,” meaning a path for self-
new martial art style, and so I have left him the
improvement and possibly spiritual
same way to start my own style.” Just as Morehei
“enlightenment” (for a discussion of
Ueshiba left his teacher, Takeda Sokaku of Daitō-
enlightenment, see Johnson and Friedman, 2008).
ryū Aikijitsu, to found modern Aikido, so there
Aikido also evolved within a specific spiritual
are many spin-offs arising from the founder’s
context, as all aspects of Japanese culture were
teachings.
influenced strongly by Shintoism, Confucianism,
and Buddhism, as well as by centuries of There are also many arts related to Daitō-
devastating warfare within Japan. Modern Aikido ryū Aikijitsu and that are very close to Aikido in
has preserved that spiritual heritage, such as practice. For example, Hapkido supposedly
through fostering an acceptance of death without originated from the teachings of Sokaku through
fear and attending to the present without a Korean student, and then was combined with
distraction. These attributes were adaptive in various traditional Korean martial arts. Also, it is
combat, both armed and unarmed, and today offer noteworthy that the Chinese calligraphy used to
a possible path to reconciling conflict and spiritual write Aikido is exactly the same as used to write
development as a Do, rather than being limited to Hapkido, and the meaning of the names are the
only a form of self-defense or combat. same across the Japanese and Korean languages,
as “Hap” and “Ai” are usually translated as
However, it should also be kept in mind
equivalent terms. Unfortunately, the common
that these same noble practices and values can be
roots of the two arts are seldom discussed, and
misused and have spurred many atrocities in the
there is little interchange among their many
name of spirituality, such as those perpetrated by
practitioners.
the Japanese during World War II (e.g., through the
blinding ideology guiding the suicide bombings of
kamikaze pilots). It is also important to recognize
Psychology and Transpersonal Psychology
that there are many divisive factions within Aikido
that have resisted their own reconciliation, so Psychology is the scientific study of individuals (a
Aikido should not be seen as offering a panacea for word derived from the root “divide,” meaning
reconciling all of the world’s conflicts, as its own separated from the rest of the universe),
house remains in disorder. In fact, as a student of including their behaviors and experiences.
Aikido in the United States during the late 1960s Transpersonal psychology is a branch, or
and early 1970s, I was chagrined to have my specialization, within psychology and, as such, is
beloved dojo (i.e., place where Aikido was also committed to science (Friedman, 2002).
practiced) torn asunder by the split between its There is no simple definition of transpersonal
founder’s son, Kisshomaru Ueshiba, and Aikido’s psychology, as it consists of a variety of theories,
then top-ranked practitioner, Koichi Tohei. When methods, and practices, but all emphasize the
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Friedman HL., Using Aikido and transpersonal concepts for reconciling conflict
term’s prefix, “trans,” which means across or balance between the naïve romanticism that
beyond. This implies that ordinary notions of the accepts extraordinary beliefs and behaviors as
person, usually viewed as an isolated monad given and a rigid materialism that dismisses the
within conventional Western perspectives to possible reality of many of the phenomena of
psychology, is an illusion. Instead of being seen most interest to Aikidoists (i.e., those practicing
as separate, individuals are seen as profoundly Aikido) because they do not easily fit into a
interconnected in transpersonal psychology. This conventional scientific framework. It challenges
also allows for extraordinary behaviors (e.g., as in the belief that all that matters is matter, as in
parapsychological phenomena, such as so-called dogmatically reducing consciousness to only
“psychokinesis” in which mind presumably acts being brain activity, despite evidence that
on matter at a distance without a known physical consciousness might exist during near death
cause) and experiences (e.g., as mystical experiences with documented brain shut-down
phenomena, such as so-called transcendent states (Fracasso, Greyson and Friedman, 2013), while it
of consciousness in which non-duality is also challenges romanticized notions that accept
supposedly experienced) to be taken seriously, unusual constructs as real without substantial
despite that conventional psychology has evidence (e.g., accepting the physical “existence”
difficulty assimilating these notions within its of something that can be meaningfully called “Ki”
narrowly materialistic paradigm. These is quite controversial).
transpersonal psychological phenomena include
Instead of conventional approaches,
what might be consistent with supernatural
transpersonal psychology provides a deeper and
interpretations of Aikido, but still attempt to see
broader view of the self as interconnected with
them in scientific ways as being part of
all of existence, including spiritual possibilities.
psychology. In a recent book on transpersonal
This rests on the fundamental fact that
psychology (Friedman and Hartelius, 2013),
individuals are not in actuality divided from the
numerous transpersonal authors wrote chapters
rest of the universe as separate entities, because
from their own varied viewpoints, thus not
an individual cannot exist alone without physical
reducing transpersonal psychology to any
sustenance and human individuals, born as
singular definition. However, this compendium
helpless infants, require at least initial social
of viewpoints as a whole does a relatively good
support to survive. Furthermore, individuals are
job of capturing the numerous commonalities and
always inextricably embedded in various
differences that exist within, and can define the
contexts, including contexts inclusive of all
diversity of, transpersonal psychology.
existence with implications toward the sacred. In
Transpersonal approaches provide a these and many similar ways, transpersonal
strong critique of, and alternative to, mainstream psychology provides a critical alternative to the
assumptions and practices (Friedman, 2012). implicit worldviews shaping, and limiting, much
Transpersonal psychologies tend to focus on an of conventional psychology.
expanded vision of the individual, and they
Historically, transpersonal psychologies
emphasize the individual’s radical
developed out of the turmoil in the United States
interconnectedness with the world, including
during the 1960s, which included psychedelic
aspects of the world seen as holistic and even
exploration (shattering the naïve belief in reality
sacred that are often ignored by mainstream
as conventionally understood), social justice
approaches to psychology. Transpersonal
(shattering the blind acceptance of authority,
psychologies provide avenues to help individuals
such as in civil rights struggles), and specifically
and groups deal not just with deficits (e.g.,
in response to multiculturalism (e.g., shattering
psychopathology) but also growth, including
the hegemony of Western religious parochialism
extraordinary growth, such as in achieving so-
through exposure to Eastern and indigenous
called higher states of consciousness and unusual
spiritual traditions). Multiculturalism provided a
powers, and possibly even spiritual
great shift in emphasis in Western psychology from
enlightenment. In addition, transpersonal
a biased view that denigrated non-Western,
psychologies differ from traditional spiritual
especially indigenous, psychologies as being
approaches by not just embracing faith-based
“primitive” to one that gave different traditions
notions but, rather, distilling these for beneficial
more respect. At the advent of transpersonal
purposes using science as a method of
psychology, Western psychology encountered
discernment. Transpersonal psychology seeks a
many Eastern philosophies and spiritual practices,
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Friedman HL., Using Aikido and transpersonal concepts for reconciling conflict
including the influential writings of Suzuki (1959) approaches to be accepted within psychology,
on the spiritual implications of Japanese martial and transpersonal psychology has promoted
arts. Part of this exposure included Western various human-science approaches to research
psychology’s encounter with Aikido, and Aikido that put into practice alternate assumptions
has been closely associated with transpersonal about epistemology and ontology (e.g., Braud and
psychology through being taught at a number of Anderson, 1999). Despite its many contributions
schools granting transpersonal psychology becoming widely accepted as legitimate, much in
degrees. For example, Sofia University, formerly transpersonal psychology still remains outside of,
the Institute for Transpersonal Psychology, was and considered suspect by, the mainstream, such
founded by Robert Frager, a high-ranking Aikidoist as its controversial interest in parapsychology,
and direct student of the founder. This school has which much of the mainstream rejects as being
long included Aikido within its curriculum as an spurious despite considerable evidentiary
attempt to give an experiential basis to what support for the validity of at least some of its
otherwise were more traditional academic findings (Krippner and Friedman, 2010).
teachings on transpersonal psychology. Also, a
One contribution from transpersonal
number of influential transpersonal psychologists
psychology that I pioneered, and which is
have studied and written about Aikido (e.g., Lukoff,
germane to this article, is the construct of “self-
2002), including my own work as both an Aikidoist
expansiveness” (Friedman, 1983, 2013). This
and transpersonal psychologist (e.g., Friedman,
considers the interconnectedness of the self
2005).
within a range of space-time possibilities, and I
The initial publication of the Journal of demonstrated that one can have a very narrow
Transpersonal Psychology officially began view of oneself or a greatly expanded view of
transpersonal psychology as a unique discipline oneself that encompasses others and even the
and, in that journal’s first issue, Maslow (1969) entire universe. Similar approaches to
attempted to define it as a refocusing from a transpersonal psychology include Walsh and
human-centered to a cosmos-centered Vaughan’s (1993) definition of the transpersonal
psychology in which humans are viewed as as experiences in which “the sense of identity or
radically interconnected with everything. self extends beyond (trans) the individual or
Transpersonal psychologies have pioneered personal to encompass wider aspects of
many areas of great popularity within humankind, life, psyche, and cosmos” (p. 3) and
contemporary psychology, including some that Grof’s (1985) definition in which the
were formerly marginalized and even denigrated transpersonal is defined when “consciousness
during the 1960s but are now considered has expanded beyond the usual ego boundaries
mainstream. Consciousness studies is now a and has transcended the limitations of time and
legitimate scientific area, but it was taboo when space” (p. 129), although my approach predates
transpersonal psychologists first took it seriously. these pronouncements and anchors them firmly
The tremendous interest from mainstream within a sound scientific methodology.
psychology in mindfulness approaches also began

with a series of articles published in early issues
of the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. And Science and Aikido
many have translated insights and practices from Demystifying Aikido through replacing what
various transpersonal systems into frameworks appears incomprehensible, and even magical from
congruent with a conventional scientific the vantages of both ancient Japanese culture and
approach. For example, Benson's (1975) its currently romanticized interpretations, with
translation of yogic mantra meditation into the rational explanations based on sound science
"relaxation response" has been widely provides a useful way to understand Aikido,
researched and shown effective for many especially using tools from psychology and its
applications. Meditation is, in fact, so successfully specialty area of transpersonal psychology
integrated in contemporary psychology that it is (Friedman, 2005a). Good examples of this strategy
now widely considered mainstream. are a series of studies on the anatomy of some of
Transpersonal psychology also explored Aikido’s basic techniques (e.g., Olson, Bozeman and
limitations in psychology’s traditional scientific Seitz, 1994; Olson, Bozeman, Seitz and
methods, and helped innovate the paradigm shift Guldbrandsen, 1994). That many other Aikido
allowing qualitative and multi-method research principles have not adequately been translated into
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Friedman HL., Using Aikido and transpersonal concepts for reconciling conflict
a scientific perspective, despite the proliferation of ability of humans to recognize the emotions of
Aikido books, is a noteworthy lack. Although some dogs (Bloom and Friedman, 2013), which enables
of these many books purport to provide the secrets trans-species cooperation. An essential part of
behind Aikido (e.g., Stevens, 1987), they often do reconciling conflict involves cooperation, and this
little more than transmit romanticized notions relates to the transpersonal interconnectedness
rather than scientific explanations of the art, such of all.
as Steven’s touting alleged amazing feats by
However, cooperation is not an all-or-
Aikido’s founder (e.g., his putatively dodging
none process. Psychologists (e.g., Deutsch,
bullets).
Coleman and Marcus, 2006) have identified a
In this regard, I think it crucially important continuum between cooperation, competition,
to judge the worth of any supernatural explanation and conflict as key to understanding the many
of transpersonal phenomena with critical types of social interactions in relationship to
discernment. One such approach would be to rely goals and how we strive to obtain them. From
on the scientific heuristic of the law of parsimony this perspective, reconciling conflict requires a
(or Occam's razor) to attempt to find simpler movement from conflict toward cooperation for
naturalistic explanations, rather than positing mutual benefit.
complex supernatural ones, especially when these
Cooperation refers to interactions in
lack compelling evidence for their existence. Such
which not only are goals shared, but in which
an approach still allows for many innovative
there is room to share the distributed fruits of
avenues to scientific work, such as renowned
goal attainment. It thus can be rational for
transpersonal psychologist and Aikidoist, Tart's
individuals or groups to interact together in
(1975) state-specific science that can be used to
pursuing a common goal, if all would benefit from
research otherwise inaccessible transpersonal
its attainment. Furthermore, without some
phenomena (e.g., exploration of altered states of
degree of cooperation, social life in general would
consciousness with investigators who are
be impossible and humans would simply not
themselves in such states in order to
survive. People cooperate when they promote a
authentically understand them). In addition, Tart
common good, and this can lead to a so-called
also argued that science does not have to be
win-win scenario that benefits both parties in a
limited to conventional materialistic assumptions
two-person dispute. In addition, to the extent
while remaining good science, a position with
that other stakeholders might benefit (e.g., by
which I concur. I conclude that the possibility of
reducing collateral damage from a conflict), this
supernatural explanations for transpersonal
could even be seen as a triple-win. Cooperation is
phenomena should not be arbitrarily dismissed,
also congruent with the essence of “Ai” in Aikido,
but any such claim should be viewed skeptically,
harmonizing with others, and the results of
especially when more ordinary explanations
achieving cooperation can produce a synergy that
suffice.
exceeds the mere sum of the parts that went into
the cooperation.
Cooperation as a Key Concept Competition on the other hand, involves a
limited struggle among individuals or groups for
Part of adapting to social life, for both individuals
the same goal, but one in which all cannot win (or
and groups, is the cooperative pursuit of shared
win equally) in sharing the distributed fruits of
goals, which may converge or diverge in varying
attaining the goal. Competition is not necessarily
degrees (Friedman, 2011). My own research has
bad, as it is a human universal that can be
looked closely at cooperation as a mechanism for
adaptive, such as by tending to stimulate
individual and species survival. My first
efficiency and encourage innovativeness. People
independent research (Friedman, 1971), for
may engage in pure competition when two or
example, looked at how married couples
more seek an exclusive opportunity, such as
cooperated in playing complex games, using their
winning the love of one person in a monogamous
performance as an indicator of the strength of
relationship or seeking a sole provider contract
their relationship. More recently following this
for a service. In such a circumstance, when only
same approach, I looked at how warfighters could
one winner is possible, this would be a so-called
perform in virtual-reality simulations (Friedman
win-lose scenario. However, competition involves
et al., 2013), again focusing on cooperation as a
adhering to agreed-upon rules, such as sharing
major variable. I have also recently looked at the
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Friedman HL., Using Aikido and transpersonal concepts for reconciling conflict
courtesy and respect—and competitors can cooperative opportunities might simply be
maintain collegiality and do not have to seek to overlooked.
destroy each other. These are also competitive
Unfortunately, there are often subtle
situations in which there are possibilities to
biases that promote competition and conflict over
partially win and partially lose in varying ratios.
cooperation. For example, I recall approaching a
When two or more people seek a valued
prominent attorney-psychologist for advice when
opportunity that has rewards that might be
I was first launching my business career as a
shared to some, but not necessarily a fully equal,
psychologist. I described to him that I aspired to
extent, they could all be both cooperating and
accomplish a cooperative culture in building my
competing somewhere between the poles of pure
new psychology practice by forging positive
cooperation and pure competition, a so-called
collegial relationships with potential employees
mixed-motive scenario that is neither clearly win-
and subcontractors. I anticipated working with
win nor win-lose.
other psychologists, as well as various types of
Conflict is a form of struggle that leads to mental health professionals, in a cooperative way,
not only a possible winner and loser as in such as by not requiring harsh and restrictive
competition, but also may involve an attempt to legal covenants (e.g., non-competition
destroy the other party. It does not necessarily agreements) as part of any employment or
imply violence, as there can be nonviolent forms subcontractor affiliations I might forge. The
of destruction (e.g., limited to the economic attorney-psychologist reacted in a pointed way:
sphere, conflicting parties may trying to put each “It sounds like you want to build a commune, not
other out of business). With conflict, there not a corporation.” This discouraging retort was
only can be a clear winner and loser as in pure correct in a conventionally legalistic way, but did
competition, but sometimes it can devolve into not recognize the various nuances that I
lose-lose scenarios in which all get destroyed in considered most important in building a practice
the process. It thus can be irrational for in which cooperation was highly valued.
individuals or groups to be in conflict if it hurts
This reflects back to Ai, as Aikido involves
all, and conflict is almost always mean-spirited in
relationship. It is not something that one can just
some ways, such as in the frequent denigration of
do to another in an isolated fashion. One must,
the other by one or more of the conflicting
instead, do Aikido with another in a way that is in
parties.
accord with the principle of Ai, similar to the
Understanding these graded nuances of psychological meaning of cooperation. In Japanese,
cooperation, competition, and conflict can the term Ai also has many mystical connotations,
provide a better psychological understanding of but it can be approached in more conventional
how Aikido might be employed, and allow for ways compatible with Western understandings.
considering areas in which people might To be in harmony (i.e., to express Ai) with
cooperate, instead of cultivating competition or another involves a recognition that there is not a
pursuing conflict. In one of my overseas firm distinction between the boundaries of
consulting roles, I recollect a wise Japanese people. In fact, through using the construct of
business executive, a master of the game “go,” self-expansiveness, a scientifically plausible way
gently chiding me, “You Americans are so to conceptualize how individuals can extend their
concerned about how to divide the pie, while we sense of self to include others is provided. At one
Japanese are more focused on how to bake a level, this involves a recognition that the other is
bigger pie.” Although people often are engaged in also a free and conscious agent. In this regard,
competing and sometimes conflicting scenarios, any martial art practice has to take into account
these usually could be transformed to better the capability of the other to anticipate and
outcomes by fostering more cooperation. One counter any move. At a deeper or transpersonal
way this could occur is through providing those level, it also involves the recognition that the
involved with better conceptual tools, such as other is not so ultimately different from the
through understanding the concepts of Aikidoist, and vice versa. This leads to an ethical
cooperation, competition, and conflict as a understanding that the other should be treated as
continuum, which allows more reflective choices the self in a different manifestation. This concept
in seeking a middle ground rather than an either- is the basis of many Western and Eastern
or solution. Without such understanding, religious and spiritual traditions (e.g., Judaism’s
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Friedman HL., Using Aikido and transpersonal concepts for reconciling conflict
golden rule for righteousness and Buddhism’s Reconciling Intrapersonal, Interpersonal,
karuna for compassion). Organizational, and Global Conflict
The implications of this are far-reaching. If Expanding upon the relatedness of the concept of
I am attacked by someone, a schism is created in cooperation and Ai, Aikido can be applied beyond
the world. The very act of the attacker, through this physical level of self-defense and combat
seeing me as separate in order to attack, places that toward reconciling personal, interpersonal,
one out of harmony with me and serves as an organizational, and even global conflict. This
impediment to the effectiveness of the attack. This leads to the highest applications of Aikido,
can be rationally understood as based on the congruent with the numerous teaching that its
principle that an attacker is severely limited when founder considered to be Aikido’s essence.
only able to observe from an external perspective.

On the other hand, if one harmonizes by keeping in
mind the interconnectedness of all, capacities for Intrapersonal Conflict
deep empathy are possible in which I can know the At the intrapersonal level, people can be in
attacker not just as an objective "it" but, instead, conflict within themselves. Individuals are not
also as an aspect of my own self. This potentially just inseparable from others, but they are
enables me to better put myself into the internally divisible, not just in terms of being
experiential position of the attacker, thus being structured at the cellular and organ-system
able to anticipate and structure a viable defensive levels, but psychologically they are often torn
strategy. The application of this principle is similar apart, as with internally competing motivations
to what is required in the intensely psychological (e.g., wanting to express anger at one’s boss,
game, rock-paper-scissors, in which each item has while wanting to remain employed). These
an advantage over, and a disadvantage under, intrapersonal conflicts can be reconciled through
another item (i.e., paper covers rock, rock smashes a variety of approaches that can be called
scissors, and scissors cuts paper). In this game, psychotherapies. Some psychotherapies help
players sequentially choose one of the items people clarify their internal conflicts by tracing
through a hand signal in hopes of gaining the their roots back to childhood experiences; one
advantage, a decision that always involves knowing type of this kind of psychotherapy is
that the other also knows that "you know that they psychoanalysis, which allows irrational decisions
know," ad infinitum. To consistently win in this made when people were children incapable of
game involves a psychological skill similar to Ai. understanding their ramifications to be re-
From a martial art perspective, if I can make use of decided by them as adults once their origins are
this principle of harmonious interconnectedness, I comprehended in a rational way. Another type of
can also accrue a number of other advantages psychotherapy focuses on current irrational
besides just better anticipating an attacker's thoughts, examining them for their usefulness to
approach. For example, I might have no interest in people without necessarily delving into their
defeating or hurting an attacker since I believe it to origins; one popular variety of this is cognitive-
ultimately be my own self that is attacking me, as I behavioral therapy, which is now evolving with
can feel so interconnected with the attacker that I mindfulness into a variety of hybrid forms
consider “us,” me and the attacker, as but one increasingly similar to various approaches to
entity. Then, my job of mere self-defense is much meditation, which can be seen as transpersonal.
simpler than if I tried to negatively return unto my There are many other transpersonal
attacker that which is being attempted upon me psychotherapies (Rodrigues and Friedman, 2013;
(i.e., both defend myself and try to defeat or hurt Friedman, 2014a), and from my view all
the other). Thus transpersonal psychology can psychotherapies can be seen as transpersonal if
provide a number of vantage points from which to practiced from a transpersonal perspective (e.g.,
scientifically understand the principle of Ai, in using tools such as derived from Ai and self-
contrast to forms of misunderstanding from expansiveness).
romanticism that may blindly embrace
A type of psychotherapy that I have been
supernatural explanations without proper
practicing for many years is bioenergetics
discernment. And, at the level of physical conflict
(Friedman and Glazer, 2010). This
in self-defense and even combat, this provides the
psychotherapy focuses on embodied patterns of
basis for a strategy for conflict reconciliation.
chronic muscle tensions resulting from conflicts.

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Friedman HL., Using Aikido and transpersonal concepts for reconciling conflict
The example mentioned of a man’s intrapersonal can be understood from a scientific perspective,
conflict between wanting to express anger at his although Ki may go far beyond this limited
boss, while also wanting to remain gainfully understanding in some exceptional individuals,
employed, can be understood at a psychosomatic veering toward the parapsychological.
level. Muscles involved in wanting to hit his boss
However, from a more mundane scientific
can be activated and, simultaneously, blocked by
understanding, Ki can be seen as a phenomenon at
the desire to want to not be fired. In other words,
least partially related to how muscle tension
competing muscles are fighting against each
patterns function. For example, all people have
other in the attempt to deal with a strong
two different types of skeletal muscles, motor and
emotion (i.e., a word derived from “motion” as in
postural (also known, in general, as fast twitch and
movement caused by muscles). This muscle
slow twitch, respectively). The motor muscles tend
tension could result in symptoms such as
to be more under volition, whereas the postural
headaches and, if not reconciled, lead to
muscles tend to be more unconscious. One
psychological collapse, often called depression
understanding of an important aspect of the
(i.e., literally the whole mind-body can become
expression of Ki in martial arts involves how these
depleted of energy). One of my first patients
muscles are used. At a basic level, motor muscles
when I was a young psychology intern came to
are always oppositional, such that each muscle is in
me with a big smile on his face and stated, “my
a push-pull relationship to another. To obtain
legs are paralyzed and I can’t go to work.” As part
maximum strength, ideally when one muscle is
of my assessment, I induced a light-hypnotic
pushing, the antagonistic muscle is totally relaxed
trance in him, and in that altered state he could
and allows the pushing muscle free reign.
walk fine but, once aroused from the trance, he
However, this never occurs in actuality, as there is
could no longer move his legs. As I explored what
always some degree of residual tension in the
was going on with this man, he revealed that he
antagonistic muscle, known as muscle tone. There
hated his abusive boss but could not leave his job,
are two strategies that can be used to increase the
as his wife had just given birth to their new baby
efficiency of motor muscles in this regard. The first
and they had no other means of financial support.
involves learning to more fully relax the
This set the direction for the psychotherapy that
antagonistic muscles so that the ones employed are
aimed to reconcile the intrapersonal conflict that
maximally efficient (i.e., by learning to reduce
led to his “paralysis.”
internal muscle conflicts through relaxation). The
This notion of muscle tension is similar to second involves the concept of "intentionality." In
an interpretation of the traditional Japanese most situations, people are not completely of one
perspective on “Ki,” which refers to a universal mind, that is their intentions are split (or even
energy, the alleged fundamental stuff of which all fragmented) over simultaneously incompatible
are seen as made in traditional Japanese culture. goals. This results in their brains sending
Eisenberg (1985) described how a teacher of contradictory messages to the muscles, so that they
Traditional Chinese Medicine explained Qi, the push and pull against each other. Imagine the one
Chinese equivalent of Ki, as follows: who wants to strike in anger at his boss yet, at
another level, part of that person also recognizes
Qi means that which differentiates life from
that this will compromise his family’s financial
death, animate from inanimate. To live is to
security. The muscles involved in wanting to strike
have Qi in every part of your body. To die is
(the agonist muscles) are governed by the anger,
to be a body without Qi. For health to be
but the sense of that act’s consequences sends
maintained, there must be a balance of Qi,
inhibitory messages to the antagonist muscles,
neither too much nor too little. (p. 43)
resulting in a diminishment of force. It is like
In regard to martial arts, Yuasa (1993) stated, "ki is driving a car with one foot pressing the gas pedal
a nebulous concept rather difficult to grasp, yet in and the other on the brake simultaneously. If
the martial arts it designates the 'mind' in the people can be unified (one-pointed) in their
lower abdomen" (p. 70) which presumably is the intentions, with minimal internal conflict, their
source of a unified mental-physical, and perhaps muscles can be most efficient. If people embrace a
spiritual, power. In contrast to these ambiguous positive and loving transpersonal perspective, they
and romanticized approaches to Ki, Tohei (1994) will have less internal conflict since they will be
has extensively discussed the development of Ki in more in harmony with themselves, as well as with
naturalistic ways. Consequently, the concept of Ki any potential attacker. In that regard, an attacker
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NeuroQuantology | June 2016 | Volume 14 | Issue 2 | Page 213-225 | doi: 10.14704/nq.2016.14.2.938 221
Friedman HL., Using Aikido and transpersonal concepts for reconciling conflict
whose intentions are aimed against another there is jockeying for power, incompatibilities
(keeping in mind that all are transpersonally regarding sexual desires, time management
interconnected) is always going to have some level concerns, disagreements about money and other
of conflict, such as shame or guilt (even if it is resource allocations, and a host of concerns that
deeply layered), literally holding (muscularly) the lead to competition and even conflict within the
attacker back. couple. These can cause bitter fighting, cessation
of intimacies, and ultimately marital dissolution.
Many other similar natural mechanisms
There are many models of family therapy focused
can be used to explain some of Aikido's
on reconciling marital conflict, such as systems
extraordinary phenomena. For example, postural
approaches that analyze the various competing
muscles (e.g., the slow twitch muscles along the
values and attempt to establish a better balance
spine that keep the skeleton erect) are often very
that meets both partners’ desires. I once worked
strong compared to many of the volitional motor
as a psychologist with a married couple in which
muscles. These can also be involved at a deep
the husband had been severely abused by his
unconscious level in actions, potentially giving
father and, although he loved his wife deeply, he
great power beyond that which can ordinarily be
was utterly incapable of expressing emotions
consciously willed (e.g., when a frail person lifts a
except in the most “wooden” of ways, as his facial
heavy object to save a child). In addition,
expressions and entire body looked frozen, like a
coordinating movement with breathing can greatly
deer caught in a car’s headlights. To get this man
enhance power. Likewise, coordinating one's
to feel (i.e., remember the root meaning of
movements with that of an attacker's (using Ai) can
emotion involves movement) in a nonthreatening
further amplify power that is seen as Ki, suggesting
way, I asked the couple to engage in some Aikido
these two are not completely different. Ki as used
exercises involving two-person cooperative
within Aikido, therefore, is not necessarily a
movements. If I had asked him to simply say he
mysterious concept, but can be seen instead as the
loved his wife, it would have been too threatening
most efficient use of our muscles, albeit in a way
and would have been expressed with a hollow
highly related to mental attitude and relationship
sound of inauthenticity, at best. However, using
with others. This understanding of Ki through the
the principle of Ai provided a tangible way to
sciences of kinesiology and muscle physiology in
work with this married couple, eventually leading
relationship to transpersonal psychology provides
to enhanced ability for emotional expression.
a perspective that does not rely on invoking
magical explanations.
This also shows how scientific approaches Organization Conflict
can be applied to both reconciling intrapersonal
Organization conflict, like intrapersonal and
conflicts with psychotherapy and optimizing the
interpersonal conflict, can also be intra and inter.
practice of Aikido with Ki development. From a
Intra-organizational conflict can occur when
bioenergetic perspective, an unfettered body that
different functional areas within an organization
has minimal emotional blockages, regardless of
are at odds, such as due to differing professional
shape or size, is graceful due to lack of muscle
values. Inter-organizational conflict can occur
tension. From a Western religious (i.e., Judeo-
when different organizations are striving for a
Christian) perspective, grace is the same term that
limited resource, such as to dominate a market
is used to express a high state of spirituality when
and put all but one organization out of business.
received as a gift from God that is given without
being earned, while from many Eastern spiritual In a recent book (Glover and Friedman,
2015), my co-author and I discussed ways to
traditions, the free flow of Ki or related energy (e.g.,
prana, kundalini, etc.) exemplifies a similar state. reconcile such conflicts through using methods of
transcultural competence. These derive from the

social-science traditions of anthropology and
Interpersonal Conflict sociology, and are now part of transcultural
psychology. In one banking company whose
Interpersonal conflict occurs in all relationships,
corporate mission statement focused on providing
as people unavoidably have differences. In
customer service that exceeded customers’
married couples, for example, the ideal is for
expectations, we posed a simple dilemma: if a well-
partners to coordinate their interactions to
regarded customer requests an exception to loan
maximize the rewards for both, but too often
policies, should it be granted? What we found
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NeuroQuantology | June 2016 | Volume 14 | Issue 2 | Page 213-225 | doi: 10.14704/nq.2016.14.2.938 222
Friedman HL., Using Aikido and transpersonal concepts for reconciling conflict
through an organizational survey was that the divide among two major groups in Fiji,
marketing personnel overwhelmingly endorsed indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians who were
making the exception, while the accounting brought to the Fiji Islands many years ago
personnel overwhelmingly endorsed denying the (Friedman, Glover and Avegalio, 2002; Friedman,
exception. This evidenced the value differences 2004). The backstory is that the British colonized
held by these two functional areas, and on the Fiji and tried unsuccessfully to enslave the
surface it seemed an irreconcilable conflict. indigenous Fijians, but these people refused to
However, by emphasizing that each perspective work the mines and the sugar plantations by
needed to be recognized as stemming from a simply allowing themselves to starve to death
different professional value orientation and that before accepting enslavement. Consequently, the
each should be respected as contributing to the British left them alone and imported people from
overall corporate enterprise, a basis for finding a India as indentured servants to do their dirty
win-win reconciliation through dialogue was work. The two ethnic groups evolved very
established. This required an understanding that different cultures, with the indigenous Fijians
each functional area is part of the overall largely maintaining their traditional lifestyles
organizational structure that transcends its while the Indo-Fijians became very Westernized.
differing parts in constituting the larger whole. When Fiji became independent from British rule,
This holistic understanding is congruent with both the two groups remained relatively separate (e.g.,
Ai from Aikido and psychological approaches to intermarriage was almost non-existent). When I
developing cooperation, as well as a transpersonal was doing a management seminar in a Fiji hotel
psychology approach to expanding the boundaries over a decade ago, it was apparent that this
of personnel’s identification toward identifying segregation still occurred, as all the front-office
with the entire organization and not just with a and wait staff were indigenous Fijians, giving the
limited functional work area, a type of self- hotel an appearance of indigenous Fijian
expansiveness into organizational arena. authenticity, but the behind-the-scenes staff, such
as the accountants and cooks, were all Indo-
Likewise, with inter-organizational
Fijians. At a seminar I was conducting, an Indo-
conflict, I worked with a team to establish
Fijian manager introduced himself to the group,
guidelines for tourist development in the south
claiming his status as an Indo-Fijian. However, an
Pacific island nation of Fiji (Glover and Friedman,
indigenous Fijian attendee interrupted him and
2015). Individual hotels were seen as competing
stated, “You are not an Indo-Fijian, but simply an
or even in conflict with each other for limited
Indian whose ancestors were brought to our land
tourist dollars. Under the encouragement of the
by the British; you are welcome to stay and
national government, a forum was created to help
prosper in Fiji, but there are a billion Indians in
these different properties understand that, if they
your land and less than a million of us Fijians in
cooperated by working together to increase
our land.” The Indo-Fijian meekly responded,
overall tourism, they would all benefit. This led
“But my family has now been here for many
to the various stakeholders pooling their
generations and we have no ties with India.”
advertising money, establishing quality
Working in such a context where even the
standards, and otherwise cooperating rather than
identifiers of people’s ethnic and national
merely competing or engaging in conflict. Again,
identities are subject to dispute illustrates the
this holistic understanding is congruent with both
challenge of working with global conflict.
the Ai in Aikido, cooperation from a psychological
vantage, and transpersonal psychology’s approach From these experiences, I and my co-
to self-expansiveness by seeking conflict author have generalized some basic principles of
reconciliation through working toward embracing transcultural competence for dealing with these
a larger whole. types of conflict (Glover and Friedman, 2015),
and these include recognizing and respecting

cultural differences as prerequisites to any
Global Conflict possible reconciliation. The reconciliation from
Reconciling global conflict can also involve this vantage ultimately involves finding a path that
principles from Aikido, such as Ai, cooperation as includes the values of all stakeholders without
understood through psychology, as well as compromising any’s unique values. Compromise is
through transpersonal concepts, such as self- seen as a win-lose or even lose-lose proposition,
expansiveness. I once worked with the ethnic whereas to create innovative ways to meet
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