FM-Lerner

28 Pages·2005·0.17 MB·English

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CHAPTER
Historical and Theoretical Bases of
Applied Developmental Science
R M. L
ICHARD ERNER
D W
ONALD ERTLIEB
F J
RANCINE ACOBS
The latter part of the 20th century problems (Dryfoos, 1990; Hamburg, 1992;
was marked by public anxiety about Hernandez, 1993; Huston, 1991; Lerner,
myriad social problems, some old, 1995; Lerner & Fisher, 1994; Schorr, 1988,
some new, but all affecting the lives of 1997). And if people were not dying, their
vulnerable children, adolescents, adults, prospects for future success were being
families, and communities (Fisher & Murray, reduced by civil unrest and ethnic conflict,
1996; Lerner, 1995; Lerner & Galambos, by famine, by environmental challenges
1998; Lerner, Sparks, & McCubbin, 1999). (e.g., involving water quality and solid-
For instance, in America, a set of problems of waste management), by school under-
historically unprecedented scope and severity achievement and dropping out, by teenage
involved interrelated issues of economic pregnancy and parenting, by lack of job
development, environmental quality, health opportunities and preparedness, by pro-
and health care delivery, poverty, crime, vio- longed welfare dependency, by challenges to
lence, drug and alcohol abuse, unsafe sex, their health (e.g., lack of immunization,
and school failure. inadequate screening for disabilities, insuffi-
Indeed, in the last years of the 20th cient prenatal care, and lack of sufficient
century and the first years of the present infant and childhood medical services), and
one, across the United States and in other by the sequelae of persistent and pervasive
nations, infants, children, adolescents, and poverty (Dryfoos, 1990; Huston, 1991;
the adults who care for them continued Huston, McLoyd, & Garcia Coll, 1994;
to die from the effects of these social Lerner, 1995; Lerner et al., 1999; Lerner &
3
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4 FOUNDATIONS OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE
Fisher, 1994). These issues challenge the field as a sample case, we may note that
resources and the future viability of civil several extensive histories of developmental
society in America and throughout the psychology have been published and most
world (Lerner, Fisher, & Weinberg, 2000a, include references to the ebb and flow of
2000b). interest and priority for what might be
The potential role of scientific knowledge termed the applied, practical, or societally
about human development in addressing oriented issues central to ADS. Especially
these issues of individuals, families, com- relevant are discussions offered by Bronfen-
munities, and civil society has resulted in brenner, Kessel, Kessen, and White (1986);
growing interest and activity in what has Cairns (1998); Davidson and Benjamin
been termed applied developmental science (1987); Hetherington (1998); McCall
(ADS). Indeed, over the last two decades, (1996); McCall and Groark (2000); Sears
increasing numbers of developmental scien- (1975); Siegel and White (1982); Parke,
tists from diverse disciplines have come to Ornstein, Reiser, and Zahn-Waxler (1994),
identify themselves professionally as applied Zigler (1998); and Zigler and Finn-Stevenson
developmental scientists. Joining under this (1992, 1999). Hetherington (1998) frames
umbrella are colleagues from allied disci- her analysis by accenting her use of the term
plines and specialties in the biological, psy- “developmental science...to emphasize
chological, social, and behavioral sciences both the scientific and multidisciplinary
and the helping professions, all sharing foundations of the study of development
common goals and visions captured in some and the recognition that development is not
of the more formal definitions of the ADS confined to childhood but extends across the
field. life span” (p. 93), an emphasis that is lost or
In many ways, ADS is “old wine in a diluted in the too-limiting term child psy-
new bottle”; that is, significant historical chology. Hetherington interprets and extends
antecedents to the burgeoning field are evi- Sears’s (1975) classic analysis, reaffirming
dent today (Wertlieb, 2003). It is useful here that “unlike many areas in psychology [with
to provide a brief overview of this history, their histories documented by Boring
focusing most on the events over the last (1950) and Koch & Leary (1985)], develop-
quarter of a century that have given shape to mental science originated from the need to
contemporary ADS. solve practical problems and evolved from
pressure to improve the education, health,
welfare and legal status of children and their
families” (p. 93).
APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL The chronology of developmental psy-
SCIENCE: A BRIEF HISTORY chology offered by Cairns (1998) serves as a
useful framework within which to specify
ADS has its roots in numerous fields some of the distinctive or seminal elements
concerned with human development, for of ADS. Cairns segments the emergence of
example, home economics/family and con- developmental psychology (1882-1912), the
sumer sciences (Meszaros, 2003; Nickols, middle period of institutionalization and
2002), human ecology (Bronfenbrenner & expansion (1913-1946), and the modern
Morris, 1998), comparative psychology era (1947-1976). His compliance with a
(Tobach, 1994), and developmental psy- convention that 20 years must elapse before
chology (Wertlieb, 2003). Using the latter qualifying as “historical” leaves much of
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Historical and Theoretical Bases 5
the significant milestone material in the own perspective. For instance, Bronfenbrenner
defining of ADS, to be mentioned below, et al. (1986) noted,
outside the realm of his presentation,
although he does conclude his account with The simple fact is that G. Stanley Hall
marched away from experimental psycho-
a clarion anticipation of and call for more
logy toward the study of children because
integrated interdisciplinary science, quite
at least six different constituencies existed
consistent with what we might term the in American society, basically still our
postmodern or contemporary era (1977 to constituencies today—scientists, college
administrators, child savers and social
the present). Indeed, it will be from this
workers, mental health workers, teachers,
most recent period that we draw our sub-
and parents. These constituencies wanted
stantive examples of ADS, after the conclu- certain kinds of knowledge about children.
sion of this historical sketch. Mirabile dictu, without even being devel-
opmental psychologists and before we
Most accounts, including Cairn’s
came into existence, they were all collect-
(1998) “emergence” analysis, portray the
ing data that look like ours. So, if you look
dialectic at the base of ADS as pioneered at the social history that surrounds the
by G. Stanley Hall, the first professor of birth of the Child Study Movement, you
psychology in America (appointed in 1883 gradually come to the conclusion that per-
haps we represent a professionalization of
at Johns Hopkins University), the first
trends of knowledge gathering and knowl-
president of the American Psychological edge analysis that existed in our society
Association (1891), and founder of the first before our coming. That doesn’t com-
child development research institute at pletely detach us from the mainstream of
the history of psychology, but it certainly
Clark University and of the journal,
throws a very different light on the emer-
Pedagogical Seminary.
gence and evolution of the field and its
basic issues. (p. 1221)
Hall was a remarkable teacher and catalyst
for the field. Some of the most significant Among Hall’s most significant contribu-
areas for developmental study—mental test-
tions, according to White (1992), were the
ing, child study, early education, adoles-
cence, life span psychology, evolutionary concern with descriptions of children in their
influence on development—were stimulated natural contexts and the priority need “to
or anticipated by Hall. Because of short- arrive at a scientific synthesis on the one
comings in the methods he employed and
side and practical recommendations on
the theory he endorsed, few investigators
the other” (as cited in Cairns, 1998, p. 43).
stepped forward to claim Hall as a scientific
mentor. His reach exceeded his grasp in the Contemporary ADS continues in its value
plan to apply the principles of the new sci- in the former and aspires to overcome the
ence to society. Psychology’s principles were
too-dichotomous implications of the second;
too modest, and society’s problems too
it emphasizes the reciprocal and mutual
large. Perhaps we should use a fresh
accounting to judge Hall’s contributions, interactions of the scientific and practical
one that takes into account the multiple that were typical in this earliest era.
facets of his influence on individuals, the
Within the last quarter of a century, a
discipline, and society. The audit would
key milestone in the elaboration of the
reveal that all of us who aspire to better the
lot of children and adolescents can claim field’s territory occurred with the founding
him as a mentor. (Cairns, 1998, p. 43) of the Journal of Applied Developmental
Psychology, in 1980, an international multi-
White (1992) points to the work of disciplinary life span journal. The masthead
Bronfenbrenner as being consistent with his proclaimed:
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6 FOUNDATIONS OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE
A forum for communication between organizations concerned with the application
researchers and practitioners working in of the developmental psychology knowledge
life span human development fields, a forum
base to societal problems. Organizations rep-
for the presentation of the conceptual,
methodological, policy, and related issues resented included the American Psychological
involved in the application of behavioral Association (APA), the Gerontological Society
science research in developmental psychol- of America, the International Society for
ogy to social action and social problem
Infant Studies, the National Black Child
solving. (Sigel & Cocking, 1980, p. i)
Development Institute, the National Council
In welcoming the new journal in an on Family Relations, the Society for Research
inaugural editorial, Zigler (1980) narrowed on Adolescence, and the Society for Research
the definition of the journal’s purview to in Child Development. Goals included the
what he called a “field within a field” (i.e., articulation of the definition and scope of
presumably, applied developmental psy- ADS along with guidelines for graduate train-
chology within developmental psychology) ing in this emergent interdisciplinary field. A
but set high and broad expectations that consensus process produced a complex four-
“these pages shall attest to the synergistic point definition of ADS, quoted here at
relationship between basic and applied length to document the current parameters
research” (p. 1). of content, process, methods, and values:
Almost 20 years later, Zigler (1998)
issued a similar note of hope, celebration, 1.1. Applied developmental science involves
and welcome in a significant essay called the programmatic synthesis of research
“A Place of Value for Applied and Policy and applications to describe, explain,
Studies,” this time in the pages of Child intervene, and provide preventive and
enhancing uses of knowledge about
Development, the prestigious archival jour-
human development. The conceptual
nal of the Society for Research in Child
bases of ADS reflects the view that indi-
Development (SRCD). Child Development
vidual and family functioning is a com-
had been singularly devoted to... bined and interactive product of biology
and the physical and social environ-
Theory-driven, basic research. Now, after ments that continuously evolve and
more than six decades of advancing science change over time. ADS emphasizes the
as a means to expand our understanding of
nature of reciprocal person-environment
human development, SRCD has formally
interactions among people, across
welcomed into its major journal research
settings, and within a multidiscipli-
that uses this knowledge on children’s
nary approach stressing individual and
behalf...the result of a very gradual trans-
formation within SRCD from a scientist’s cultural diversity. This orientation is
science toward a more public science. defined by three conjoint emphases:
(Zigler, 1998, p. 532)
Applied: Direct implications for what
individuals, families, practitioners, and
The continuing vicissitudes of the gaps and
policymakers do.
synergies between applied and basic research
will be a theme of the historical sketch offered Developmental: Systematic and succes-
below (see also Garner, 1972). sive changes within human systems that
occur across the life span.
In 1991, the National Task Force on
Applied Developmental Science convened
Science:Grounded in a range of research
representatives from a broad, but not methods designed to collect reliable and
exhaustive, range of professional scientific objective information systematically that
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Historical and Theoretical Bases 7
can be used to test the validity of theory developmental science across the life span.
and application. Manuscripts pertinent to the diversity of
development throughout the life span—
1.2. ADS recognizes that valid applications cross-national and cross-cultural studies;
of our knowledge of human develop- systematic studies of psychopathology; and
ment depend on scientifically based studies pertinent to gender, ethnic and
understanding of multilevel normative racial diversity—are particularly welcome.
...(The audience includes) developmental,
and atypical processes that continually
clinical, school, counseling, aging, educa-
change and emerge over the life cycle.
tional, and community psychologists; life
course, family and demographic socio-
1.3. ADS reflects an integration of perspec-
logists; health professionals; family and
tives from relevant biological, social,
consumer scientists; human evolution and
and behavioral sciences disciplines in
ecological biologists; practitioners in child
the service of promoting development in
and youth governmental and nongovern-
various populations. mental organizations. (p. 1)
1.4. The nature of work in ADS is reci-
procal in that science drives application
This amplified definition of ADS pos-
and application drives science. ADS
tulates a number of hallmarks of ADS key
emphasizes the bidirectional relationship
to the discussion of its history, content, and
between those who generate empirically
special concerns. Among these hallmarks are
based knowledge about developmental
phenomena and those who pursue pro- the following:
fessional practices, services, and policies
that affect the well-being of members
of society. Accordingly, research and 1. A historical context and perspective
theory guide intervention strategies, reflecting the perennial balancing of related
and evaluations of outcomes of develop- constructs such as basic and applied research
mental interventions provide the basis or science and practice or knowledge gene-
for the reformulation of theory and for
ration and use. This includes a sensitivity
modification of future interventions.
to historical and sociopolitical contexts
(Fisher et al., 1993, pp. 4-5)
captured in the notion of ADS as...
Scholarship for our times....As we enter
By 1997, these parameters defining ADS
the 21st century, there is growing recogni-
were adopted as the editorial scope of a new tion that traditional and artificial distinc-
journal, Applied Developmental Science, tions between science and service and
with further explication of a more inclusive between knowledge generation and knowl-
edge application need to be reconceptual-
range of methodologies and audiences.
ized if society is to successfully address the
According to Lerner, Fisher, and Weinberg harrowing developmental sequelae of the
(1997), the journal publishes ... social, economic and geo-political legacies
of the 20th century. Scholars, practitioners
and policymakers are increasingly recogniz-
Research employing any of a diverse array ing the role that developmental science can
of methodologies—multivariate longitudi- play in stemming the tide of life chance
nal studies, demographic analyses, evalua- destruction caused by poverty, premature
tion research, intensive measurement births, school failure, child abuse, crime,
studies, ethnographic analyses, laboratory adolescent pregnancy, substance abuse,
experiments, analyses of policy and/or unemployment, welfare dependency, dis-
policy-engagement studies, or animal com- crimination, ethnic conflict, and inadequate
parative studies—when they have impor- health and social resources. (Lerner et al.,
tant implications for the application of 1997, p. 2)
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8 FOUNDATIONS OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE
2. A broadened and deepened awareness FROM DEVELOPMENTAL SYSTEMS
of the ethical challenges and imperatives THEORIES TO APPLIED
involved in implementing the scope of ADS. DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE
This awareness evolves from challenges in
the use of scientific methods in new ways Paul Mussen, the editor of the third edition
such that protection of the autonomy and of the Handbook of Child Psychology, pre-
well-being of participants is increasingly saged what today is abundantly clear about
complex. Research participants become the contemporary stress on systems theories
partners in the inquiry process and new, of human development. Mussen (1970) said,
more complicated collaborations among “The major contemporary empirical and
diverse multidisciplinary professionals and theoretical emphases in the field of devel-
communities become key elements of defin- opmental psychology...seem to be on
ing research questions and problems and explanations of the psychological changes
seeking answers and solutions. that occur, the mechanisms and processes
accounting for growth and development”
Moreover, as implied earlier in the chap- (p. vii). This vision alerted developmental
ter, some leaders of ADS have seen the need scientists to a burgeoning interest—not in
to further broaden the potential scope of this structure, function, or content per se, but in
field, suggesting elements of a blueprint for change, in the processes through which
promoting civil society and social justice, a change occurs, and in the means through
provocative and compelling elaboration of which structures transform and functions
both the substance and ethical orientation of evolve over the course of human life.
the field (Lerner et al., 2000b). Others have Today, Mussen’s (1970) vision has been
focused on more traditional, academic, or crystallized. The cutting edge of contemporary
incremental stocktaking for defining ADS, developmental theory is represented by
with attention to advancing the numerous systems conceptions of the process of how
knowledge bases and methodologies (e.g., structures function and how functions are
Schwebel, Plumert, & Pick, 2000; Shonkoff, structured over time. Thus, developmental
2000; Sigel & Renninger, 1998). However, systems theories of human development are
given the presence of this range of interests not necessarily tied to a particular content
and activities, ADS is now considered “an domain, although particular empirical issues
established discipline” (Fisher, Murray, & or substantive foci (e.g., motor development,
Sigel, 1996), one that is operationalized by successful aging, wisdom, extraordinary cog-
the diverse foci of work pursued under nitive achievements, language acquisition, the
this framework but is linked by a common self, psychological complexity, or concept for-
conceptual/theoretical perspective about mation) may lend themselves readily as exem-
human development: developmental systems plary sample cases of the processes depicted in
theory. To understand the diversity of a given theory (see Lerner, 1998a).
empirical, methodological, and ethical inter- The power of developmental systems the-
ests and activities of contemporary ADS, it is ories lies in their ability to not be limited or
important to appreciate the developmental confounded by an inextricable association
systems theoretical orientation that rational- with a unidimensional portrayal of the devel-
izes the use of developmental science for the oping person. In developmental systems
promotion of positive human development theories, the person is neither biologized,
and the enhancement of civil society. psychologized, nor sociologized. Rather,
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Historical and Theoretical Bases 9
the individual is systemized. A person’s words, development,understood as a property
development is embedded within an inte- of systemic change in the multiple and inte-
grated matrix of variables derived from mul- grated levels of organization comprising
tiple levels of organization. Development is human life and its ecology (ranging from biol-
conceptualized as deriving from the dynamic ogy to culture and history), is an overarching
relations among the variables within this conceptual frame associated with developmen-
multitiered matrix. tal systems models of human development.
Developmental systems theories use the
polarities that engaged developmental theory
Explanation and
in the past (e.g., nature/nurture, individual/
Application: A Synthesis
society, biology/culture; Lerner, 1976, 1986,
2002b). They are not used to “split” depic- This stress on the dynamic relation
tions of developmental processes along between the individual and his or her con-
conceptually implausible and empirically text results in the recognition that a synthe-
counterfactual lines (Gollin, 1981; Overton, sis of perspectives from multiple disciplines
1998) or to force counterproductive choices is needed to understand the multilevel inte-
between false opposites (e.g., heredity or grations involved in human development. In
environment, continuity or discontinuity, addition, to understand the basic process of
constancy or change; Lerner, 2002b), but human development, both descriptive and
rather to gain insight into the integrations explanatory research must be conducted
that exist among the multiple levels of orga- within the actual ecology of people’s lives.
nization involved in human development. Explanatory studies, by their very nature,
These theories are certainly more complex constitute intervention research. The role of
than their one-sided predecessors. They are the developmental researcher conducting
also more nuanced, more flexible, more bal- explanatory research is to understand the
anced, and less susceptible to extravagant ways in which variations in person-context
or even absurd claims: for instance, that relations account for the character of human
nature split from nurture can shape the developmental trajectories, life paths that are
course of human development; that there is a enacted in the natural laboratory of the real
gene for altruism, militarism, or intelligence; world. To gain an understanding of how
or that when the social context is demon- theoretically relevant variations in person-
strated to affect development, the influence context relations may influence developmen-
can be reduced to a genetic one (e.g., tal trajectories, the researcher may introduce
Hamburger, 1957; Lorenz, 1966; Plomin, policies and/or programs as experimental
1986, 2000; Plomin, Corley, DeFries, & manipulations of the proximal and/or distal
Faulker, 1990; Rowe, 1994; Rushton, 1987, natural ecology. Evaluations of the outcomes
1988a, 1988b, 1997, 1999). of such interventions become a means to
These mechanistic and atomistic views bring data to bear on theoretical issues perti-
of the past have been replaced, then, by theo- nent to person-context relations. More
retical models that stress the dynamic synthesis specifically, these interventions have helped
of multiple levels of analysis, a perspective applied developmental scientists understand
having its roots in systems theories of biologi- the plasticity in human development that
cal development (Cairns, 1998; Gottlieb, may exist and that may be capitalized on to
1992; Kuo, 1930, 1967, 1976; Schneirla, enhance human life (Csikszentmihalyi &
1956, 1957; von Bertalanffy, 1933). In other Rathunde, 1998; Lerner, 1984).
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10 FOUNDATIONS OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE
The interindividual differences in intrain- then, basic research in human development is
dividual change that exist as a consequence intervention research (Lerner et al., 1994).
of these naturally occurring interventions Accordingly, the cutting edge of theory
attest to the magnitude of the systematic and research in human development lies
changes in structure and function—the in the application of the conceptual and
plasticity—that characterizes human life. methodological expertise of human develop-
Explanatory research is necessary, however, mental scientists to the natural ontogenetic
to understand which variables, from which laboratory of the real world. This placement
levels of organization are involved in partic- of explanatory research about the basic
ular instances of plasticity that have been relational process of development into the
seen to exist. In addition, such research is actual ecology of human development, then,
necessary to determine which instances of involves the fusion of application with basic
plasticity may be created by science or soci- developmental science. To pursue the study
ety. In other words, explanatory research is of ontogeny from a developmental systems
needed to ascertain the extent of human plas- perspective, a research/application agenda
ticity or in turn, to test the limits of plasticity that focuses on the relations between diverse
(Baltes, 1987; Baltes, Lindenberger, & individuals and their similarly diverse con-
Staudinger, 1998; Lerner, 1984). texts is brought to the forefront (Lerner,
From a developmental systems perspec- 2002b). In addition, however, scholars
tive, the conduct of such research may lead involved in such research must have at least
the scientist to alter the natural ecology of two other concerns deriving from the view
the person or group he or she is studying. that basic explanatory research in human
Such research may involve either proximal development is, in its essence, intervention
and/or distal variations in the context of research.
human development (Lerner & Ryff, Research in human development that is
1978); but in any case, these manipulations concerned with one or even a few instances
constitute theoretically guided alterations of individual and contextual diversity can-
of the roles and events a person or group not be assumed to be useful for understand-
experiences at, or over, a portion of the life ing the life courses of all people. Similarly,
span. policies and programs derived from such
These alterations are indeed, then, inter- research or associated with it in the context
ventions: They are planned attempts to alter of a researcher’s tests of ideas pertinent to
the system of person-context relations that human plasticity cannot hope to be applica-
constitute the basic process of change; they ble or equally appropriate and useful in all
are conducted to ascertain the specific bases contexts or for all individuals. Accordingly,
of or to test the limits of particular instances policy development and program (interven-
of human plasticity (Baltes, 1987; Baltes tion) design and delivery that are develop-
& Baltes, 1980; Baltes et al., 1998). These mental and oriented to individual differences
interventions are a researcher’s attempt to must be a key part of the approach to applied
substitute designed person-context rela- developmental research for which we are
tions for naturally occurring ones in an calling.
attempt to understand the process of chang- The variation in settings within which
ing person-context relations that provides people live means that studying development
the basis of human development. In short, in a standard (for example, a controlled)
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Historical and Theoretical Bases 11
environment does not provide information human development. To do this, we may
pertinent to the actual (ecologically valid) make great use of the integrative, temporal,
developing relations between individually and relational model of the person and
distinct people and their specific contexts of his or her context that is embodied in
(for example, their particular families, developmental system theories of human
schools, or communities). This point development.
underscores the need to conduct research in
real-world settings (Bronfenbrenner, 1974;
From Developmental Systems Theory
Zigler, 1998) and highlights the ideas that
to the Core Principles of ADS
(a) policies and programs constitute natural
experiments, that is, planned interventions As has been argued before us—for
for people and institutions, and (b) the eval- example, by Fisher (e.g., Fisher et al., 1993;
uation of such activities becomes a central Fisher & Lerner, 1994); Weinberg (e.g.,
focus in the developmental systems research Lerner et al., 1997, 2000a, 2000b); Sherrod
agenda we have described (Cairns, Bergman, (e.g., 1999a, 1999b); Eccles (Eccles, Lord, &
& Kagan, 1998; Lerner, 1995; Lerner, Buchanan, 1996); Takanishi (1993); Lerner
Ostrom, & Freel, 1995; Ostrom, Lerner, & (Lerner, 1998b, 2002a, 2002b); and
Freel, 1995). Wertlieb (2003)—ADS is scholarship predi-
In this view, then, policy and program cated on a developmental systems theoreti-
endeavors do not constitute secondary work cal perspective. Within this context, Fisher
or derivative applications conducted after etal. (1993) summarize the five conceptual
research evidence has been complied. Quite components that together characterize the
to the contrary, policy development and core principles of ADS. Taken together,
implementation and program design and these conceptual principles make ADS a
delivery become integral components of the unique approach to understanding and
ADS approach to research; the evaluation promoting positive development.
component of such policy and intervention The first conceptual component of ADS
work provides critical feedback about the is the notion of the temporality, or historical
adequacy of the conceptual frame from embeddedness, of change pertinent to
which this research agenda should derive individuals, families, institutions, and com-
(Zigler, 1998; Zigler & Finn-Stevenson, munities. Some components of the context or
1992). of individuals remain stable over time, and
In essence, then, a developmental systems other components may change historically.
perspective leads us to recognize that if Because phenomena of human behavior and
we are to have an adequate and sufficient development vary historically, one must
science of human development, we must assess whether generalizations across time
integratively study individual and contextual periods are legitimate. Thus, temporality has
levels of organization in a relational and important implications for research design,
temporal manner (Bronfenbrenner, 1974; service provision, and program evaluation.
Zigler, 1998). We may also seek to serve Interventions are aimed at altering the
America’s citizens and families through our developmental trajectory of within-person
science and help develop successful policies changes. To accomplish this aim, the second
and programs through our scholarly efforts conceptual feature of ADS is that applied
that result in the promotion of positive developmental scientists take into account
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12 FOUNDATIONS OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE
interindividual differences (diversity) among, recognize the importance of knowledge
for instance, racial, ethnic, social class, and about life and development that exists
gender groups, and intraindividual changes, among the individuals, families, and commu-
such as those associated with puberty. nities being served by ADS. For applied
The third conceptual feature of ADS developmental scien-tists, collaboration and
places an emphasis on the centrality of con- colearning between researchers/universities
text. There is a focus on the relations among and communities are essential features of
all levels of organization within the ecology the scholarly enterprise (Lerner, 1998a,
of human development. These levels involve 1998b). Such community-collaborative
biology, families, peer groups, schools, busi- efforts are termed outreach scholarship
nesses, neighborhoods and communities, (Lerner & Miller, 1998).
physical/ecological settings, and the socio- In other words, given the developmen-
cultural, political, legal, moral, and economic tal systems perspective on which ADS is
institutions of society. Together, bidirectional predicated, applied developmental scientists
relations among these levels of the develop- assume the following:
mental system necessitate systemic approaches
to research, program and policy design, and There is an interactive relationship between
science and application. Accordingly, the
program and policy implementation.
work of those who generate empirically
The fourth principle of ADS emphasizes based knowledge about development and
descriptively normative developmental pro- those who provide professional services or
cesses and primary prevention and optimi- construct policies affecting individuals and
families is seen as reciprocal in that research
zation, rather than remediation. Applied
and theory guide intervention strategies and
developmental scientists emphasize healthy
the evaluation of interventions and policies
and normative developmental processes and provides the bases for reformulating theory
seek to identify the strengths and assets of and future research....As a result, applied
developmental [scientists] not only dissemi-
individuals, groups, and settings, rather than
nate information about development to
focusing on deficits, weaknesses, or prob-
parents, professionals, and policymakers
lems of individuals, families, or communities. working to enhance the development of
Instead of dwelling on the problems faced by others, they also integrate the perspectives
and experiences of these members of the
people, applied developmental scientists aim
community into the reformulation of theory
to find combinations of individual and
and the design of research and interventions.
ecological assets associated with thriving (Fisher & Lerner, 1994, p. 7)
among people (e.g., Benson, 1997; Benson,
Leffert, Scales, & Blyth, 1998; Leffert et al., Given the theoretically predicated set of
1998; Scales, Benson, Leffert, & Blyth, 2000) principles defining ADS, it is clear that not
and with the “5 Cs” of positive individual all possible realms of developmental science
development: competence, confidence, con- would lend themselves to this view of schol-
nection, character, and caring/compassion arship (e.g., genetic-reductionist approaches
(Hamilton & Hamilton, 1999; Lerner, to human development would not fit
2002b; Little, 1993; Pittman, 1996). within this approach; for a more thorough
The final principle of ADS is the appreci- discussion of this point, see Lerner, 2002b).
ation of the bidirectional relationship It is useful, then, to discuss the dimensions
between knowledge generation and knowl- of scientific work that are brought to the
edge application. By acknowledging bidirec- forefront by an ADS perspective framed by
tionality, applied developmental scientists developmental systems thinking.