Fluids in the Earth's Crust: Their Significance in Metamorphic, Tectonic and Chemical Transport Processes PDF
Preview Fluids in the Earth's Crust: Their Significance in Metamorphic, Tectonic and Chemical Transport Processes
D e v e l o p m e n ts in G e o c h e m i s t ry 1 F L U I DS IN T HE E A R T H 'S C R U ST Their significance in metamorphic, tectonic and chemical transport processes by W. S. F Y FE University of Western Ontario, London, Ont, Canada N. J. P R I CE Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, Great Britain A. B . T H O M P S ON Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, Zurich, Switzerland ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY Amsterdam - Oxford - New York 1978 ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY Jan van Galenstraat 335 P.O. Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands Distributions for the United States and Canada: ELSEVIER/NORTH-HOLLAND INC. 52 Vanderbilt Avenue New York N.Y. 10019, U.S.A. With 227 illustrations and 17 tables. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Fyfe, W. S. Fluids in the earth's crust. (Developments, in geochemistry ; 1) Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Hydrogeology. 2. Rocks, Metamorphic. 3. Geology, Structural, k. Groundwater flow. I. Price, Neville J., joint author. II. Thompson, Alan Bruce, 191*7- joint author. III. Title. IV· Series. QE33.F86 * 552»Λ 78-8286 ISBN 0-kkk-kl636-6 ISBN 0-444-41636-6 (Vol. 1) ISBN 0-444-41635-8 (Series) Copyright © 1978 by Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Jan van Galenstraat 335, Amsterdam Printed in The Netherlands Most of us are reluctant to consider that fluids may pour through rocks despite our knowledge of the success of deep drilling for oil, gas or water. This scene from White Island, New Zealand, shows the output from convection of seawater near a magma cham- ber. The gas cloud is rich in hydrochloric acid from the hydrolysis of salt. This type of convective cooling process must influence all rocks of the sea floor and leads to extensive chemical changes and, at times, metal transport forming ore deposits. (Photo — courtesy R.H. Clark) EDITOR'S PREFACE TO THE SERIES: Developments in Geochemistry We are living in a period of spectacular advances in the Earth Sciences. The new global tectonics, the recognition that we live on a planet which is convecting, is rapidly changing our views on almost every part of geochemistry. We also live during what must be a unique period of human history, a period where man has come to realize that the planet Earth has limits. We are changing our geochemical environment and we are placing great demands on Earth resources. We do not adequately understand geochemical processes on and in the Earth and every day we become aware of important gaps in our knowledge. At the same time as we have come to recognize the necessity for more geochemistry, new tools for observation have become available. On all scales from the remote analysis of planetary systems, to the detailed study of atomic domains with analytical electron mi- croscopes, ion-probes and mass spectrometers, we can describe as never before. And the development of the modern computer which allows us to process, store and retrieve infor- mation, has been essential to advances. Because of all these things, we are faced with an information explosion. To write books becomes an increasingly frightening task. How does the author select and synthe- size and still obtain balance? But it is just at such a time that the necessity to try such synthesis becomes even more important for the student and research worker. It is our hope that this series will contribute to knowledge in these developing fields of geochemi- cal study. Advisory Editor W.S. FYFE Chairman of the Department Department of Geology, Faculty of Science The University of Western Ontario Biological & Geological Building London, Ont. N6A 5B7, Canada PREFACE The decision to write this book arose when the three of us were associated through Manchester University and Imperial College. At that time we were attempting to formulate realistic experiments linking metamorphic processes and rock mechanics. While so involved, it became apparent that while many admirable texts of metamorphic petrology or structural geology exist, there has been little attempt to unify. To us this seemed unnatural; rock deforma- tion and metamorphism are in general, a unity. One need only look at any metamorphic terrain to be impressed by the interactions between stress—strain and chemical processes. Hence we have tried to pull together some of the pieces of the puzzle. It is a first imperfect attempt, but we hope it may stim- ulate others, particularly the new generation of observers of rocks, to con- tinue and do better. This book is intended for the advanced undergraduate and postgraduate student. It is not a traditional text on metamorphic geology, nor is it in any way a treatise on structural geology, though it draws heavily on both these philosophies. Consequently, the text should prove interesting to students in both these fields. Indeed, the content of this book forms a significant part of the course given by one of the authors in the M.Sc. course in Structural Geology and Rock Mechanics at Imperial College. However, it is considered that the subject matter of this book will be of interest to mining and oil geologists as well as pure geologists all of whom may be concerned with the generation and migration of fluids in the crust, their influence upon struc- tures and their collection and concentration into commercially viable reser- voirs or their fossil trace in the form of ore bodies. And today, the urgent global problem of nuclear waste disposal involves the knowledge and gaps in knowledge with which we are here concerned. W.S. FYFE, London, Ont. N.J. PRICE, London A.B. THOMPSON, Zürich ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is difficult to acknowledge fully those who directly or indirectly have particularly influenced us either by personal contact or by their written work. But among such people we wish to list are: R.L. Armstrong, B. Atkinson, W. Brace, D.S. Coombs, J. Cosgrove, J. Elder, A.J. Ellis, H.P. Eugster, R.M. Garrels, J. Gilluly, D.T. Griggs, H. Heard, H.D. Holland, J.C. Jaeger, G. Jones, G.C. Kennedy, M. King-Hubbert, G. Mandl, J. Phillips, J.G. Ramsay, W.W. Rubey, A.B. Ronov, E. Rutter, R. Sibson, J.B. Thompson, F.J. Turner, J. Verhoogen, S. White, G. Wilson, Å-an Zen. Particular thanks go to Sally Adams, Jackie Ainge, Judy Blackwell, Peter Frey, Joan Price, Renate Ringsman, Ursi Stidwill, for helping in various ways in the preparation of this manuscript. PERMISSIONS Permission to reproduce the material listed below is gratefully acknowledged. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Wiesbaden (Figs. 4.3, 4.4) American Association for the Advancement of Science (Fig. 4.23; Table 2.7) The American Association of Petroleum Geologists (Figs. 2.8,11.29,12.9) The American Chemical Society (Fig. 5.17) The American Journal of Science (Figs. 2.4, 2.5, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.8, 4.9, 4.10, 4.11, 4.12A, 4.13, 4.15B, 4.17, 4.19, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.14, 7.2,13.11) The American Geophysical Union (Figs. 5.20, 8.12,12.12) The Association of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum Engineering (Figs. 8.15,8.16,8.17) Butterworths Scientific Publications (Figs. 8.6,10.16,10.17) Canadian Geological Survey (Fig. 8.32) Carnegie Institution of Washington (Figs. 5.18, 5.19) Economic Geology (Figs. 2.6, 4.15A, 4.21, 4.22) Freeman, Cooper & Co. (Fig. 12.3) W.H. Freeman and Co. (Table 2.6) The Geological Association (Fig. 11.9) The Geological Association of America (Figs. 2.3, 9.5, 10.1, 11.30, 12.2, 13.1;Tables2.1,2.2) The Geological Magazine (Figs. 9.4,10.18) The Geological Society of London (Figs. 9.3, 9.11, 9.16, 11.15, 11.19, 11.20,11.24,11.25,13.2) Geologie en Mijnbouw (Fig. 12.6) Harper and Row Publisher Inc. (Fig. 6.10) Holt, Rinehart and Winston (Figs. 2.9, 4.12B) International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences (Figs. 8.20, 10.2) John Wiley and Sons Inc. (Figs. 4.7, 6.8) Journal of Petroleum Technology (Fig. 10.2) Masson et Cie. (Figs. 5.10, 5.15) McGraw-Hill Book Co. (Figs. 5.1, 5.2, 5.16) National Academy of Sciences, Washington (Figs. 11.1,11.7) W.W. Norton and Company Inc. (Figs. 2.7, 2.8; Tables 2.3, 2.4, 2.5) Oxford University Press (Figs. 5.21,12.5) Pergamon Press Inc. (Figs. 4.1, 4.2, 5.3, 5.7, 5.11, 5.12) The Royal Society (Figs. 8.41, 8.42) Science Progress, Oxford (Figs. 8.1, 9.6, 9.8) Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists (Figs. 5.9, 5.13) Springer-Verlag (Figs. 5.8, 6.6, 7.9) United States Geological Survey (Tables 2.9, 2.10) GLOSSARY Units The reader will find several types of units used in this book. In general, we have used the units of the original source. To assist, some basic units and their conversion relations are listed here. Concentration M (molarity) m (molality) Í (normality) ppb (parts per billion) ppm (parts per million) vol.% (per cent by volume) wt.% (per cent by weight) Energy 1 cal. (calorie) 4.184 J (joule) 1 erg 10"7 J 1 eV (electron volt) 1.602 - 10"19 J Entropy 1 cal. g"1 °C"1 4,184 J kg"1 K"1 Force 1 dyn (dyne) ÉÏ"5 Í (newton) Gas constant R 8.314 J mol"1 Ê"1 Length 1 in. (inch) 0.02452 m (meter) 1 ft. (foot) 0.3048 m 1 mile 1,609 m Mass 1 t (ton) 106 g (gram) Pressure 1 atm. (atmosphere) 1.013 · 105 Pa (pascal) 1 bar 105 Pa 1 lb. in."2 (pound-force per 6.89474 · 103 Pa square inch) Temperature °C (degree Celsius) K (kelvin) Time 1 day 86,400 s (second) 1 a (year) 3.16 · 107 s Viscosity 1 Ñ (poise) 10"5 Nm"2 s"1 S.I. unit prefaces ì (micro) 10"6 k (kilo) 103 m (milli) 10"3 M (mega) 106 c (centi) 10"2 G (giga) 109 XVII Frequently used symbols A surface area Ô temperature a activity (thermodynamic) t time D diffusion constant V molar volume Å energy, also Young's modulus õ velocity f fugacity x mole fraction of component i t G Gibbs free energy æ depth ë gravitational acceleration e strain H heat content or enthalpy è strain rate Ñ atmospheric pressure V viscosity Ñ pore-fluid pressure Mi chemical potential of component i R gas constant Ñ density S entropy ó stress ss , S principal stresses ô shear stress u 2 3 Frequently used abbreviations of minerals Alb = albite Ens = enstatite Per = periclase Als = kyanite—andalusife—sillimanite For = f or s ter i te Pia = plagioclase An = anorthite Gro = grossular Pre = prehnite And = andalusite Hed = hedenbergite Pyp = pyrophyllite Ank = ankerite Jad = jadeite Qtz = quartz Ant = anthophyllite Kao = kaolinite Ser = serpentine Bru = brucite Ksp = K-feldspar Sil = sillimanite Cal = calcite Kya = kyanite Tal = talc Cor = corundum Lau = laumontite War = wairakite Dio = diopside Law = lawsonite Wo = wollastonite Dol = dolomite Mus = muscovite Zos = zoisite Dsp = diaspore XVIII Chemical symbols and elements Ac actinium He helium Ra radium Ag silver Hf hafnium Rb rubidium Al aluminium Hg mercury Re rhenium Ar argon Ho holmium Rh rhodium As arsenic I iodine Rn radon At astatine In indium Ru ruthenium Au gold Ir iridium S sulphur  boron Ê potassium Sb antimony Ba barium Kr krypton Sc scandium Be beryllium La lanthanum Se selenium Bi bismuth Li lithium Si silicon Br bromine Lu lutetium Sm samarium C carbon Mg magnesium Sn tin Ca calcium Ìç manganese Sr strontium Cd cadmium Mo molybdenum Ta tantalum Ce cerium Í nitrogen Tb terbium Cl chlorine Na sodium Te technetium Co cobalt Nb niobium Te tellurium Cr chromium Nd neodymium Th thorium Cs cesium Ne neon Ti titanium Cu copper Ni nickel Tl thallium Dy dysprosium 0 oxygen Tm thulium Er erbium Os osmium U uranium Eu europium Ñ phosphorus V vanadium F fluorine Pa protactinium W tungsten Fe iron Pb lead Xe xenon Fr francium Pd palladium Y yttrium Ga gallium Pm promethium Yb ytterbium Gd gadolinium Po polonium Zn zinc Ge germanium Pr praseodymium Zr zirconium H hydrogen Pt platinum
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