Financial Economic Theory and Engineering October 2008 Alberto Dominguez, ASA CFA Topic Syllabus Pages Percent Notes Pages Percent 1 522 21.0% 112 25.8% 2 886 35.7% 134 30.9% 3 462 18.6% 87 20.0% 4 251 10.1% 52 12.0% 5 362 14.6% 49 11.3% 2483 434 Topic 1 – Modern Corporate Financial Theory Definitions of Capital, Sources and Uses, and Optimal Structure a. Explain various definitions of capital, including regulatory, rating agency and other RBC requirements, context in which they are appropriate, and how they affect decisions. Cost of Capital b. Calculate cost of capital for a venture or a firm using most appropriate method for given circumstances and justify choice of method. c. Evaluate various profitability measures including IRR and NPV Economic Capital d. Define and compare risk metrics used to quantify EC and describe their limitations. e. Apply concept of EC and describe methodologies for allocating capital within a financial organization. Regulatory and Rating Agency Issues f. Identify regulatory capital requirements and describe how they affect decisions. g. Identify goals and methodologies of rating agencies and how their rating activities affect financial institutions and choice of capital structure. Corporate Structure h. Recommend a specific legal form of organization and justify choices.1 i. Recommend specific firm governance measures and justify recommendation. j. Identify sources of agency costs and methods to address them. 1 This learning objective is not actually covered in any readings Chew, New Corporate Finance: Where Theory Meets Practice, 3rd Edition, 2001, Chapter 31: “Theory of Risk Capital in Financial Firms” (cid:53) Hardy, Investment Guarantees, Chapter 9: Risk Measures (pp. 157‐169 only) (cid:53) Crouhy Galai & Mark, Risk Management, 2001 • Chapter 2 (cid:53) • Chapter 14 (cid:53) Copeland, Weston, Shastri, Financial Theory and Corporate Policy, 4th Edition, 2005, Chapter 2: Investment Decisions: Certainty Case (cid:53) “Investor & Management Expectations of ROE Measure vs Some Basic Truths of Financial Accounting” by Michelle D. Smith, Financial Reporter, 9/03 (cid:53) “Recommended Approach for Setting Regulatory RBC Requirements for VAs and Similar Products,” AAA, June 2005, pp. 1–18 only (cid:53) Capital Allocation by Percentile Layer, Bodoff, SOA Monograph, 2007 (cid:53) FET‐109‐07: One Step in Right Direction: New C‐3a RBC Component (cid:53) FET‐113‐07: Allocation of Risk Capital in Financial Institutions (cid:53) FET‐114‐07: Capital Allocation in Financial Firms (cid:53) FET‐115‐08: Specialty Guide on EC, 2004 (exclude appendices) (cid:53) FET‐138‐07: Risk2: Measuring Risk in Value at Risk (cid:53) FET‐139‐07: VAR: Seductive but Dangerous (cid:53) FET‐141‐08: A Principles Based Reserves and Capital Standard, Friedman & Mueller (cid:53) FET‐142‐08: Do Life Insurer RBC Ratios Reflect Underlying Risk Levels? (exclude appendix) (cid:53) FET‐143‐08: Introducing Moody’s New Liquidity Model for U.S. Life Insurers (cid:53) FET‐144‐08: New Risk‐Based Insurance Capital Model, by S&P (cid:53) FET‐145‐08: Cost of Capital for Financial Firms (cid:53) FET‐146‐08: Solvency Measurement for Property‐Liability RBC Applications (cid:53) FET‐162‐08: Chapter 18 of Financial Markets and Corporate Strategy, Grinblatt & Titman (cid:53) FET‐163‐08: Chapter 19 of Financial Markets and Corporate Strategy, Grinblatt & Titman (cid:53) Part 1 ‐ Syllabus Study Notes 2 Financial Economic Theory & Engineering © 2008 Alberto Dominguez Table of Contents Corporate Finance Theory Meets Practice Chapter 31..............................................................................4 Investment Guarantees Chapter 9..............................................................................................................9 Risk Management Chapter 2....................................................................................................................11 Group of Thirty Derivatives Practices and Principles Recommendations................................................19 Risk Management Chapter 14..................................................................................................................23 Financial Theory and Corporate Policy Chapter 2....................................................................................28 Investor and Management Expectations of ROE Measure.......................................................................32 Recommended Approach for Setting Regulatory RBC Requirements......................................................34 Capital Allocation by Percentile Layer......................................................................................................40 New C3A RBC Component (SN109)..........................................................................................................45 Allocation of Risk Capital in Financial Institutions (SN113)......................................................................51 Capital Allocation in Financial Firms (SN114)...........................................................................................57 Specialty Guide on Economic Capital (SN115)..........................................................................................60 Measuring Risk in VaR (SN138).................................................................................................................70 VaR: Seductive but Dangerous (SN139)....................................................................................................72 A Principles Based Reserves and Capital Standard (SN141).....................................................................74 Do Life Insurer RBC Ratios Reflect Underlying Risk Levels? (SN142)........................................................77 Introducing Moody’s New Liquidity Model for US Life Insurers (SN143).................................................79 New RBC Model (SN144)..........................................................................................................................82 Cost of Capital for Financial Firms (SN145)..............................................................................................88 Solvency Measurement for P&C RBC Applications (SN146).....................................................................99 Financial Markets and Corporate Strategy Chapter 18..........................................................................102 Financial Markets and Corporate Strategy Chapter 19..........................................................................108 Part 1 ‐ Syllabus Study Notes 3 Financial Economic Theory & Engineering © 2008 Alberto Dominguez Corporate Finance Theory Meets Practice Chapter 31 (cid:132) Introduction ⎯ Principal activities can be asset‐related (lending, block‐positioning) or liability‐related (deposit taking, guarantee writing) or both (derivative writing) ⎯ Principal firms have three important distinguishing features that s/b taken into account when deciding which activities to enter or exit, how to finance those activities, and whether to hedge − Customers can be major liability holders; they strongly prefer high credit quality; A rated firms can generally raise funds to operate since investors are less credit sensitive but are at a disadvantage in competing with AAA rated firms − Opaqueness; detailed asset holdings and business activities are not publicly disclosed; also they have relatively liquid balance sheets that in course of only weeks can and often do undergo substantial change in size and risk; they can enter, exit, expand, contract businesses quickly at relatively low cost − They operate in competitive financial markets; profitability is thus highly sensitive to their cost of capital; problem of capital allocation within firm is effectively problem of correctly charging for guarantees provided by firm to its constituent businesses ⎯ What is risk capital? − Merton‐Perold definition of risk capital is smallest amount that can be invested implicitly or explicitly to purchase insurance on firm’s net assets against a loss in value relative to riskless investment of those net assets − With fixed liabilities riskiness of net assets is same as riskiness of gross assets, but with contingent liabilities riskiness of net assets depends on riskiness of gross assets and covariance between gross assets and customer liabilities − Risk capital differs from both regulatory capital, which attempts to measure risk capital according to a particular accounting standard, and cash capital, which represents upfront cash required to execute transactions (cid:132) Measuring risk capital – Example 1 ⎯ Consider a newly formed bank subsidiary of a large AAAA conglomerate ⎯ Only deal is a $100M one year loan promising 20% interest ⎯ Three scenarios: a likely anticipated scenario in which loan pays off in full, an unlikely disaster scenario in which loan defaults but lender recovers 50%, and a rare catastrophe scenario in which lender recovers 0 ⎯ Bank requires $100M in cash capital but also needs risk capital; firm finances cash capital by means of a one year note issued to outside investor at riskless rate of 10% ⎯ Firm can purchase insurance on its assets, purchase insurance on its liabilities or a combination of two; these are economically equivalent ⎯ Approach 1 – Asset guarantees − Bank buys insurance from a AAAA bond insurer sufficient to guarantee a return of $110M on bridge loan; noteholder is thus assured of full payment − Price of loan insurance ($5M) is risk capital bank requires, which would need to be funded with cash equity investment from parent − If bridge loan pays off as promised bank will return $10M to its parent; if bridge loan defaults insurance covers shortfall but there will be nothing to return to parent; risk capital Part 1 ‐ Syllabus Study Notes 4 Financial Economic Theory & Engineering © 2008 Alberto Dominguez used to purchase insurance will have been just sufficient to protect firm from loss on underlying asset − Insurer bears asset risk and parent bears risk of loss of risk capital itself ⎯ Approach 2 – Liability guarantees − Parent guarantee of note is most common form of credit enhancement for debt of a subsidiary − Parent makes no cash equity investment in bank but now bears all asset risk; guarantee is an additional asset of subsidiary that does not appear on its balance sheet − If loan defaults then noteholder collects shortfall from parent; note guarantee has same cash flows as bridge loan insurance; therefore risk capital (value of off balance sheet parent guarantee) is $5M as in approach 1 ⎯ Approach 3 – Liabilities with default risk − Now risky note will sell at a discount leaving bank short of its need for cash capital; shortfall in initial funding must be supplied as cash equity by parent − If bridge loan defaults there will be nothing to return to parent but noteholder will be at risk for any shortfall − Shareholder has same cash flows as under approaches 1 & 2; therefore risk capital is $5M; risky note has initial value of $95M with a promised yield of 15.8% − Noteholder can interpret its purchase of risky note as equivalent to two transactions, purchase of a default‐free note for $100M plus sale to bank of debt insurance for $5M, with netting ⎯ Each approach has a different accounting balance sheet yet all have very similar risk capital balance sheets; this is because underlying asset requiring risk capital is same in all cases and only difference is which party bears risk: insurer, parent, noteholder (cid:132) Measuring risk capital – Example 2 ⎯ Consider a firm with an investment portfolio of risky assets worth $2.5B and liabilities outstanding in form of one year GICs promising 10% on $1B face value ⎯ Suppose riskiness of portfolio is ∋ price of insurance to permit portfolio to be financed risklessly for one year is $500M; this is required risk capital ⎯ Financing is in form of one year junior debt promising 10% on $1B face value and shareholder equity of $500M ⎯ Suppose firm obtains partial insurance chosen to cover first $300M of decline of value below $2.5B and that value of this third‐party insurance is $200M ⎯ GICs are most protected, at risk only if portfolio falls below $800M; accordingly they trade at only a small discount; assume 1% implying a price of $990M and a promised yield of 11% ⎯ Junior debt is riskier; at risk if portfolio falls below $1.9B; so debt will trade at a larger discount; assume 10% implying a price of $900M and a promised yield of 22%; and finally value of equity is $810M ⎯ GIC holders have in effect purchased default‐free GICs worth $1B and sold catastrophe insurance worth $10M; debt holders have in effect purchased default‐free debt worth $1B and sold disaster insurance worth $100M ⎯ We know it takes $500M to fully insure so balance of $190M is provided by equity holders Part 1 ‐ Syllabus Study Notes 5 Financial Economic Theory & Engineering © 2008 Alberto Dominguez ⎯ Equity holders can think of their investment as $500M of default‐free cash capital bringing total cash capital to $2.5B, providing $500M of risk capital to pay for asset insurance, and selling a portion of that insurance worth $190M ⎯ This encapsulates three basic functions of capital providers − All provide cash capital − All are sellers of asset insurance to firm although in varying degrees; customers usually offer least amount because they prefer contract values not tied to firm − Provision of risk capital to purchase asset insurance is almost always by equity holders (cid:132) Contingent customer liabilities ⎯ Suppose bank issues contingent liability in form of one year S&P500 index linked note that promises to pay $100M plus dollar return on S&P500 index over year ⎯ How firm chooses to invest $100M determines risk capital − Firm might invest in one year Treasury bills paying 10%; in this case gross assets are riskless but net assets are extremely risky equivalent to a short position in S&P500; shortfall is same payoff as a European call on $100M of S&P500 with strike of $110M; risk capital is equal to value of this call − Firm might invest in S&P500; in this case gross assets are risky but net assets are riskless; risk capital is 0 − Firm might invest in customized portfolio that tracks S&P500 but omits companies firm believes will underperform; now gross assets and net assets are both risky; risk capital will equal value of guarantee that pays amount by which portfolio underperforms index, if any (cid:132) Accounting for risk capital ⎯ Standard methods of accounting often fail to include gains and losses on risk capital ⎯ Expected economic cost of capital s/b included in calculation of profits ⎯ Example – Securities underwriting subsidiary anticipates $50M in revenues and $30M in expenses; it has ongoing net working capital requirement of $10M so its equity capital is $10M − ROE is thus anticipated to be 200% for year but this ignores risk capital, which in this case is price of insurance implicitly provided by parent that subsidiary can perform its underwriting commitments − Suppose such insurance would cost $15M, then shareholder equity would be $25M; further including cost of this insurance results in anticipated profit of $5M and a ROE of 20% ⎯ Proper internal accounting would book insurance premium as expense to subsidiary and revenue to parent in its role as guarantor same as with external insurance; any “claims” paid s/b considered revenue to subsidiary and expense to parent ⎯ Even though this treatment of revenue and expense does not affect consolidated accounting, it can materially affect calculated profit rates of individual businesses; omission of risk capital overstates profit when underlying assets perform well (because insurance expires worthless) and understates profit when underlying assets perform poorly (because insurance becomes valuable) (cid:132) Economic cost of risk capital ⎯ For purposes of decision making beforehand expected profits including expected economic cost of risk capital must be estimated; risk capital will not be costly in economic sense if asset insurance can be purchased at its actuarially fair value ⎯ Usually transacting is not free of economic cost; spread costs are deadweight losses to firm Part 1 ‐ Syllabus Study Notes 6 Financial Economic Theory & Engineering © 2008 Alberto Dominguez ⎯ Reasons for spreads vary by type of risk coverage but largest component generally relates to insurer’s need for protection from information costs (adverse selection, moral hazard) and agency costs ⎯ Spreads for providing asset insurance to principal firms will be relatively higher than for more transparent institutions ⎯ Cost of risk capital is likely to depend on form in which insurance is purchased − In an all equity firm, cost will tend to reflect high agency costs but little moral hazard − Debt financing can reduce agency costs but then moral hazard can be high especially in highly leveraged firms in which management has a strong incentive to roll dice ⎯ Signaling: firms faced with high spreads can try to obtain lower spreads by making themselves more transparent; transparency however can impose costs of its own such as giving away potential competitive advantages ⎯ Ex ante only economic costs are deducted; risk capital costs and cash capital costs s/b expensed, at riskless rate and spread cost respectively; insurance purchased at actuarial fair value is costless ⎯ Ex post full cost of insurance is deducted to measure profitability (cid:132) Hedging and risk management ⎯ Hedging reduces asset risk and hence required amount of risk capital ⎯ Firms that speculate on direction of market and therefore maintain market exposure will require more risk capital ⎯ If there were no spread costs larger amounts of risk capital would impose no additional costs and firms may be indifferent to hedging; if ∃ spread costs then a reduction in risk capital from hedging will lead to lower costs if hedges can be acquired at relatively small spreads; hedging broad market risks is usually not that expensive because spreads are small (cid:132) Capital allocation and capital budgeting ⎯ In considering whether to enter new businesses or get out of existing businesses, marginal benefit must be traded off against marginal cost; cost of risk capital can be a major influence; to evaluate net marginal benefit is difficult ⎯ One simplifying assumption is that incremental cost of risk capital is proportional to incremental amount of risk capital; this might be reasonable if decision does not materially change degree of transparency of firm ⎯ In general incremental risk capital of business within firm will differ from risk capital determined on stand‐alone basis; this is a result of diversification effect that depends on correlations among firm’s various businesses and dramatically reduces firm’s overall risk capital; its presence means that a full allocation of all risk capital to constituent businesses is generally inappropriate; marginal capital s/b used ⎯ Example – Firm with three businesses − Total stand‐alone risk capital is $600M but firm risk capital is only $394M − In effect businesses coinsure one another, requiring less external asset insurance − An important implication is that businesses that would be unprofitable on stand‐alone basis because of high risk capital requirements might be profitable within a firm that has other businesses with offsetting risks − Attempting to allocate firm risk capital across individual businesses also suffers from problems; to see why examine marginal risk capital required by individual businesses Part 1 ‐ Syllabus Study Notes 7 Financial Economic Theory & Engineering © 2008 Alberto Dominguez ($74M, $102M, $90M), which is only 2/ of full risk capital; only at extreme of perfect 3 correlation among all businesses is all firm risk capital allocated using marginal approach; in other cases some firm risk capital can and should go unallocated − Full allocation of firm risk capital overstates marginal risk capital, and stand‐alone risk capital overstates marginal risk capital by an even greater amount; stand‐alone risk capital always exceeds sum of marginal risk capital of businesses2 ⎯ Riskiness of net assets is affected by correlations among units; value of net assets is affected by correlation with broad market ⎯ Insurance to permit default‐free financing is effectively a put on net assets with strike (A – L ) 0 0 erT ⎯ Risk Capital ≈ 0.4 A σ √T (provides a very close approximation to BSM put value) 0 (cid:132) Conclusions ⎯ Amount of risk capital is uniquely determined by riskiness of net assets; it is not affected by form of financing ⎯ Risk capital is provided by firm’s residual claimants usually equity holders; implicitly or explicitly this capital is used to purchase asset insurance; potential issuers of asset insurance are customers, debt holders and equity holders 2 Proof provided in text p454 Part 1 ‐ Syllabus Study Notes 8 Financial Economic Theory & Engineering © 2008 Alberto Dominguez
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