Cover Page i FIGHTING POVERTY WITH VIRTUE Page iii FIGHTING POVERTY WITH VIRTUE MORAL REFORM AND AMERICA’S URBAN POOR, 18252000 JOEL SCHWARTZ INDIANA UNIVERSITY PRESS Bloomington and Indianpolis Page iv This book is a publication of Indiana University Press 601 North Morton Street Bloomington, Indiana 474043797 USA www.indiana.edu/~iupress Telephone orders 8008426796 Fax orders 8128557931 Orders by email [email protected] ©2000 by Joel Schwartz All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. The Association of American University Presses’ Resolution on Permissions constitutes the only exception to this prohibition. The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.481984. Manufactured in the United States of America Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data Schwartz, Joel, date Fighting poverty with virtue : moral reform and America’s urban poor, 18252000/Joel Schwartz. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0253337712 (cl: alk. paper) 1. Urban poor – United States – History. 2. Poverty – Moral and ethical aspects – United States. I. Title. HV4044 .S33 2000 362.5’8’0973091732–dc2100027603 1 2 3 4 5 05 04 03 02 01 00 Page v To my mother, ANNA J. SCHWARTZ; My wife, ANNE HIMMELFARB; My children, EZRA, NATHANIEL, and LEAH SCHWARTZ; And to the memory of my father, ISAAC SCHWARTZ Page vii It was in his second and last year at Mount Diablo [Community College]…that he first learned what “bourgeois” meant in its full historical context. Mr. Wildrotsky, a contemporary of his mom and dad, was sardonic about the concept, but that didn’t diminish it for a moment in Conrad’s eyes. To live the bourgeois life was to be obsessed with order, moral rectitude, courtesy, cooperation, education, financial success, comfort, respectability, pride in one’s offspring, and, above all, domestic tranquillity. To Conrad it sounded like heaven. — TOM WOLFE, A MAN IN FULL (NEW YORK: FARRAR STRAUS GIROUX, 1998), PP. 170—171 Page viii Contents Acknowledgments xi Introduction: What Moral Reform Is and Why It’s Important xiv PART ONE: MORAL REFORM IN THE PAST 1 Principles and Intentions: Why Moral Reform Was Undertaken 3 The Efficacy of the Virtues 4 Fighting Pauperism as a Priority 7 The Importance of SelfHelp 12 The Virtues Taught by the Moral Reformers 15 A. Diligence and Its Difficulties 15 Acknowledging Unemployment and Coping With It 17 Promoting Diligence 21 Creating Work and Defending the Rights of Labor 25 B. Sobriety and Success 28 Alcohol Consumption and Social Problems 29 The Success of the Temperance Movement 30 Reducing Poverty, Elevating Character 32 Cause and Effect 34 Workers and Temperance 36 The Pros and Cons of Prohibition 39 Temperance, Not Abstinence 41 C. Salvation Through Saving? 43 The Practicality of Saving 44 Saving as Philanthropy 46 Encouraging Saving 47 WorkingClass Savings 49 The Limits of Savings 53 The Danger of Underconsumption 55 D. Family Values: More Than Just a Footnote 58 Family Ties 60 Desertion and Poverty 61 Promoting Women’s SelfReliance 66 E. Knowledge as Virtue: Why Moral Reform Could Be Implemented 67 Practical Advice 69 Crossing Class and Ethnic Lines 71 Why the Virtues Were Teachable 73 Why Moral Reform Was Hard to Achieve 76 Messages and Messengers 76 Difficulties of Religious Reformation 80 Skepticism about Rehabilitation 84 The Interplay of Matter and Morals 87 Housing Reform and Moral Reform 88 PART TWO: THE CRITIQUE AND REJECTION OF MORAL REFORM 95 The Decline of LaissezFaire and the Critique Of Moral Reform 97 A. Introduction 97 The Virtues of the Poor 99 Restricting LaissezFaire to Promote the Virtues 102 Moral Traditionalism 103 The Noneconomic Virtues 105 The Economic Virtues 107 The Critique of the Reformers’ Virtues 108 B. Jane Addams: The Compassionate Critique Of The Industrial Virtues 109 The Moral Impact of the Industrial Revolution 112 Industrial Revolution and Upward Mobility 115 Compassion as Condescension 118 The Luftmensch as Test Case 119 Different Virtues, Different Rewards 120 C. Walter Rauschenbusch: The Christian Critique Of Prudence 121 The Critique of Prudence 124 Victims of the Rich 128 Economic and Moral Revolutions 129 The Rejection of Moral Reform 131 The Great Transformation 132 Blaming the Victim 133 Defending Moral Judgments 136 Social Control 137 Regulating the Poor 139 Moral Imperialism and the Case for Social Control 142 The (Moral) World Turned Upside Down 144 The Cultural Contradiction of Poverty 145 The Irony of Moral Reform 150 Poverty Then and Now 152 The Efficacy of the Virtues 155 PART THREE: THE CONTEMPORARY PROSPECTS FOR MORAL REFORM 159 African Americans, Irish Americans, and Moral Reform: Historical Considerations 161 ColorBlind Reformers 162 Booker T. Washington and Moral Reform 167 W. E. B. DuBois As Advocate of Moral Reform 170 Malcolm X and Muslim Moral Reform 173 The Failure of Muslim Moral Reform 176 Poverty and Virtue Among African Americans 178 The IrishBlack Comparison 180 How the Irish Became “White”—and “Protestant” 183 Explaining Irish American Moral Reform 186 The Contemporary Climate for Moral Reform 189 Ambivalent Resources for Moral Reform 190 The Black Bourgeoisie and the Debate over Its Virtues 193 Are the Virtues (and Success) “White”? 195 How Great Is the Fear of ‘‘Acting White"? 196 Receptivity to Virtue 198 An Underclass Society? 200 Retreat from the Underclass Society? 203 Return to Moral Reform? 204 Causes for Concern 206 The Contemporary Practice of Moral Reform: Urban Ministries, Public Policy, and the Promotion of Virtue 211 Urban Ministries and Moral Reform, Yesterday and Today 212 Democratized Moral Reform 213 The Ecumenicism of Contemporary Moral Reform 215 Government Help and SelfHelp 217 Promoting Virtue through Public Policy 218 Promoting Familial Responsibility 220 Temperance Efforts Today 223 SelfReliance Reconsidered 226 Encouraging Thrift 227 Promoting Diligence through Welfare Reform 230 Facilitating and Rewarding Work 233 Biographical Appendix 239 Notes 247 Bibliography 325 Index 343 Page xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I first contemplated writing this book in anticipation of a period of unemployment—not to be confused with a period of poverty. In 1995 I was employed by the federal government; but I knew that I would lose my job that December, because the agency’s budget had been cut severely by the Republican Congress elected in 1994. (In October 1998 I returned to work at the same agency, having completed an allbutfinal draft of this manuscript in the interim.) Back in 1995 my impending job loss (orchestrated as it was by congressional action) was somewhat ironic, since in many ways I sympathized with the aims of the Republican Congress. The resultant experience—of a desired political victory culminating in my unemployment—furnished a useful reminder of the ways in which the policies one favors can nevertheless have painful side effects. I would like to think that this particular hardwon bit of knowledge is occasionally reflected in the pages that follow. Unlike most people who are about to be unemployed, I had the good fortune to have a friend who worked at a foundation: Hillel Fradkin, who was then a vice president at the Bradley Foundation. Hillel, who was one of dozens of people with whom I networked in the effort to find another job, asked me if there was anything that I wanted to write. Not having given that question any previous consideration, I quickly realized that I did want to address a particular topic. In 1991 I had published an article about Jacob Riis, a New York reformer in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, who is discussed in this book from time to time. Riis embodied a constellation of attitudes toward the poor—upon whom he made serious moral demands while simultaneously acknowledging and working to alleviate the structural problems they faced—that I found attractive. I told Hillel that I would like to explore other nineteenthcentury figures who embodied the same sorts of attitudes, both to understand their position and to see what lessons it could still offer us today. He suggested that I apply to Bradley for a grant. I wrote the application, Bradley awarded funds to support the project, and I began working on this book in January 1997. I am accordingly grateful to the Bradley Foundation, and to my other funders, the Earhart Foundation and the Smith Richardson Foundation. This book could not have been written without their generous support. I owe a particular debt to Phoebe Cottingham, who expedited Smith Richardson’s review of my grant application in December 1997: her efforts enabled me to continue research and writing without interruption in 1998. Page xii Virtually all of the work on this book was done at the Hudson Institute’s Washington office. Hudson graciously offered all of the facilities that a researcherwriter needs, without imposing any obligations that would have slowed my pace. I am grateful to Les Lenkowsky (Hudson’s president when I began this project), Herb London (its president when I concluded it), and Tom Duesterberg (the director of the Washington office during my tenure) for their support and encouragement. Research was greatly facilitated by the collections of a great many libraries: the Library of Congress; the New York Public Library; Columbia University’s Rare Book and Manuscript Library; the library of the United States Department of Labor; the library of the National Association of Social Workers; the public libraries of the District of Columbia and Montgomery County, Maryland; and the libraries of American University, the Catholic University of America, and George Washington University. My ability to secure materials from these university libraries was greatly enhanced by the assistance of Professors Alan Levine of American University, Jerry Z. Muller of Catholic University, and Philip Hamburger of George Washington University. My research was also assisted by employees of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism and the Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics, who helped me find and interpret data incorporated in these pages. A number of people read all or parts of the manuscript at various stages in its gestation. I would like to thank them for their comments and suggestions, which have improved it in many ways. Milton Himmelfarb, Lawrence M. Mead, and John Weicher were exceptionally careful readers, and I am particularly grateful to them. I also benefited from the thoughtful reactions of many other readers: John Barry, Bill Galston, Nathan Glazer, Philip Hamburger, David Hammack, Anne Himmelfarb, Gertrude Himmelfarb, Howard Husock, Bill Kristol, Les Lenkowsky, Herb London, Phil Lyons, Jerry Muller, James O’Gara, Naomi Pasachoff, Ed Rubenstein, Anna J. Schwartz, Rachel Schwartz, Amram Shapiro, John Walters, Joan Waugh, Richard Wolf, Alan Wolfe, and Adam Wolfson. Several publications and institutions kindly allowed me to refine my arguments by trying them out on assorted readers and auditors. Early versions of portions of this manuscript appeared in The American Outlook, Philanthropy, and The Public Interest. I also delivered two talks that were spun off this manuscript: at a graduate seminar conducted by Francis Fukuyama and Seymour Martin Lipset at George Mason University in 1997, and at a panel at the 1999 Communitarian Summit in Crystal City, Virginia. Everyone with whom I worked at Indiana University Press was unfailingly helpful in response to my questions. In particular I have benefited from the counsel of Bob Sloan, Marilyn Grobschmidt, and my copy editor, Kate Babbitt. I have dedicated this book to my mother, my wife, my children, and the memory of my father, who died in the midst of its preparation. Since familial responsibility is one of the virtues that the book recommends, I would like to think that an Page xiii author’s predictable obsessiveness possed no more than the customary obstacles in the face of my efforts to continue to be a good son, husband, and father. The living dedicatees of this volume can make that judgment for themselves. Whatever their view, I can honestly say that the example provided by my mother and my wife—and the inspiration offered by my children—has done far more to instruct me in the meaning of familial responsibility than the writings of the moral reformers that I expound below. In closing, let me turn to the dedicatee who is no longer alive. Shortly before he died, I discovered that my father was unconsciously present in the manuscript. A reader who offered comments contended that my assessment of the figure whom I call the Luftmensch (discussed in the chapter on Jane Addams) was excessively harsh: If his family stayed together despite his poverty, what was so bad about a father who chose primarily to develop his intellectual faculties (by reading in libraries) rather than doing more to provide an income for his family? The reaction may be a reasonable one, but I have let the passage stand more or less as it was when my reader offered it. I now realize that my criticism of the Luftmensch was so harsh because I was unconsciously judging him by the standard of my father: a man of enormous intellectual gifts who had the misfortune to leave the university world (having acquired a master’s degree in classics) in the midst of the Depression. For the next forty years and more my father worked in a job that must have offered him little or no intellectual stimulation—precisely so as to do more rather than less to support his family. The temptation to refrain from doing remunerative work—so as to have more time available for more enjoyable though uncompensated intellectual work—must have been great for my father; but he never succumbed to it. In short, my father was strong enough and disciplined enough to refrain from leading the life of a Luftmensch, tempting though it must have been to him at times. He is the principal dedicatee of this book because he so nobly incarnated the virtues that are discussed in it.