Fiberglass and Glass Technology: Energy-Friendly Compositions and Applications

478 Pages·2010·6.44 MB·English

by  Frederick T. Wallenberger (auth.), Frederick T. Wallenberger, Paul A. Bingham (eds.)

Fiberglass and Glass Technology
·
Frederick T. Wallenberger Paul A. Bingham
Editors
Fiberglass and Glass
Technology
Energy-Friendly Compositions
and Applications
123
Editors
FrederickT.Wallenberger PaulA.Bingham
Consultant DepartmentofEngineeringMaterials
708DuncanAvenue UniversityofSheffield
SirRobertHadfieldBuilding
Apartment1108
SheffieldS13JD
Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania15237
UnitedKingdom
UnitedStates p.a.bingham@sheffield.ac.uk
[email protected]
ISBN978-1-4419-0735-6 e-ISBN978-1-4419-0736-3
DOI10.1007/978-1-4419-0736-3
SpringerNewYorkDordrechtHeidelbergLondon
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2009938639
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Preface
This book offers a comprehensive view of fiberglass and glass technology with
emphasis on energy-friendly compositions, manufacturing practices, and appli-
cations, which have recently emerged and continue to emerge. Energy-friendly
compositions are variants of incumbent fiberglass and glass compositions. They
are obtained by reformulation of incumbent glass compositions in order to reduce
the melt viscosity and increase the melting rate, thereby saving process energy
and reducing environmental emissions. As a result, new energy-friendly compo-
sitionsareexpectedtobecomeakeyfactorinthefutureforthefiberglassandglass
industries.Thecontributorstothebookconsistofbothacademicandindustrialsci-
entists. This book is therefore dedicated to those in the academic and industrial
communitywhoseekanunderstandingofthepastinordertomakeprogressinthe
future.
Thisbookconsistsofthreeinterrelatedsections.PartIreviewsawiderangeof
continuous glass fibers, their compositions, and properties. Dr. F. T. Wallenberger
authoredChapter1,whichreviewsimportantglassfibersrangingfromcommercial
100% SiO2 glass fibers and commercial multi-oxide glass fibers to experimen-
tal glass fibers containing 81% Al O . Dr. Wallenberger also authored Chapter 2.
2 3
Thischapteroffersanewmethod(trendlinedesign)fordesigningenvironmentally
andenergy-friendlyE-,ECR-,A-,andC-glasscompositionstoreducetheprocess
energy by compositional reformulation. Few fiberglass applications are based on
yarns; most are based on composites. Dr. J. H. A van der Woude and Dr. E. L.
Lawton authored Chapter 3, which reviews fiberglass composite engineering with
an important sub-chapter on windmill blade construction. Dr. A. V. Longobardo
wrote Chapter 4. It reviews the glass fibers which became available as reinforce-
ment for printed circuit boards and analyzes their compositions as well as the
needs of the market. Finally Dr. R. L. Hausrath and Dr. A. Longobardo authored
Chapter 5, which reviews high-strength glass fibers and analyzes existing and
emergingmarketsfortheseproducts.
Part II of the book deals with soda–lime–silica glass technology. The first two
chapters(Chapters6and7)parallelthefirsttwochaptersinPartI(Chapters1and
2).Dr.Ing.A.SmrcˇekwroteChapter6.Itisdevotedtoawiderangeofindustrial
flat,container, and technical glass compositions and toan in-depth review of their
properties. Dr. P. A. Bingham authored Chapter 7. It deals with the design of new
v
vi Preface
energy-friendly flat, container, and technical glass melts through reformulation of
existingcompositionalvariantstoreducetheprocessenergy.
Part III of the book deals with emerging glass melting science and technology,
and is conceptually applicable to both glass and fiberglass melts. Prof. Dr. H.-J.
Hoffmann authored Chapter 8, which offers new insights into the basics of melt-
ing and glass formation at the most fundamental level. Prof. Dr. R. Conradt wrote
Chapter9,whichdealswiththethermodynamicsofglassmelting,offersamodelto
predict the thermodynamic properties of industrial multi-component glasses from
their chemical compositions, addresses the role of individual raw materials in the
meltingprocessofE-glass,andfacilitatesthecalculationoftheheatofthebatch-to-
meltconversion.Prof.Dr.H.A.SchaefferandPriv.Doz.Dr.-Ing.H.Müller-Simon
authoredChapter10,whichreviewstheuseofinsitusensorsformonitoringglass
melt properties and monitoring species in the combustion space and also reviews
redox control of glass melting with high levels of recycled glass to enhance the
environmentallyfriendlyvalueoftheresultingglass.Dr.R.GontermanandDr.M.
A.WeinsteinauthoredChapter11,whichdealswiththerecentlyemergingplasma
melttechnologyanditspotentialapplications.
Dr.WallenbergerwishestoacknowledgehisyearsatPPGIndustriesfrom1995
to 2008, especially the invitation he received from the late John Horgan, Vice
President, Fiberglass, to join PPG, and the support of Dr. Jaap van der Woude,
who as Director of Research, encouraged him in 1997 to pursue innovative com-
positionalfiberglassresearch.Dr.Wallenbergergratefullyacknowledgesthehelpof
Dr. Bingham, co-editor of the book, and the valuable contributions of the chapter
authors.Finally,Dr.Wallenbergerwishestoacknowledgethethoughtfulsupportof
Jennifer Mirski who, as assistant editor, Springer Publisher, helped in editing the
entirebook.
Dr. Bingham wishes to thank the following people for their help, insight, com-
ments, and encouragement: Dr. Fred Wallenberger, co-editor of the book; Prof.
Michael Cable for many interesting discussions; all of our contributing authors;
colleagues present and past at the Society of Glass Technology, the University of
Sheffield,andtheBritishGlassManufacturer’sConfederation;andthemanyother
individuals with whom he has held discussions over the years on the fascinating
subjectofglass.Finallyandmostimportantly,hethankshisfamilyfortheirendless
patience,love,support,andencouragement.
F.T.Wallenberger Pittsburgh,PA,USA
P.A.Bingham Sheffield,UK
About the Editors
Dr. Frederick T. Wallenberger was an instructor in Chemistry at Fordham
University(1957–1958),aresearchfellowatHarvard(1958–1959),andascientist
atDuPontFibers,PioneeringResearchLaboratory(1959–1992).Heretiredin1992
fromDuPontandbecamearesearchprofessor(MaterialsScience)attheUniversity
of Illinois in Urbana-Champaign (1992) and a visiting professor (Textiles) at the
University of California in Davis (1994). He joined PPG as a staff scientist in
1995,retiredin2008,andservesasaconsultantnow.Hestudiedtherelationships
between structures, properties, and value-in-use of new materials and contributed
to the commercialization of new fibers through “intrapreneurial” research, project
management,andtechnologytransfer.Heisanexpertinthefieldsofadvancedglass
fibers, ceramic fibers, carbon fibers, natural fibers, polymer fibers, single crystal
fibers,andcomposites.
Dr.Wallenbergerhasover150papersintherefereedscientificliterature,includ-
ing three in the journal science, edited four books (Advanced Inorganic Fibers,
1999; Advanced Fibers, 2002; Natural Fibers, 2004; and Fiberglass and Glass
Technology, 2009), wrote two recent review articles (Introduction to Reinforcing
Fibers and Glass Fibers, ASM Handbook on Composites, 2002), and received 10
US Patents. He chaired three major symposiums (“Chemistry and Environment,”
American Chemical Society, 1974; “Advanced Fibers, Plastics and Composites,”
Materials Research Society, 2001; “Behavior of Glass Melts,” Gordon Research
Conference, 2005), gave three invited Gordon Research Conference lectures
(“Aramid Fibers,” 1964; “Foamed Polyester Fibers,” 1975; and “Glass Fibers,”
1992) and wrote the first review article that included KevlarTM (“The Chemistry
ofHeatResistantPolymerFibers,”AngewandteChemie,1964)
Dr. Wallenberger received the Environmental Respect Award from DuPont
(1992). He is a member of the Association of Harvard Chemists (1958–) and was
elected a Fellow of the American Ceramic Society (2005). His biography appears
in several standard references including Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in
America,andWho’sWhoinScienceandEngineering.
Dr. Paul A. Bingham received his BEng (Hons) degree in Materials Science and
Engineering from the University of Sheffield in 1995. He then studied toward a
Ph.D.(1995to1999,thesistitle“TheEnvironmentofIroninSilicateGlasses”)at
vii
viii AbouttheEditors
the same institution, which hosts one of the world’s premier glass science depart-
ments.From1999to2003hewasemployedasatechnologistbyGlassTechnology
Services Ltd (GTS) a subsidiary of the British Glass manufacturers confederation
wherehecarriedoutawiderangeofglassandceramic-relatedR&D,projectman-
agement, and industrial production problem solving. He was promoted to senior
technologist in 2001. Projects ranged from laboratory-scale development of soda–
lime–silica glass, E-glass, lead crystal glass, sealing glass, and glasses with novel
physicalpropertiestomanagingindustrial-scaleglasscompositions,melting,recy-
cling, energy, and emissions. Environmentally friendly glass compositions that he
developedhavereachedfull-scaleproduction.In2004,Dr.Binghamtookupaposi-
tion as postdoctoral research associate at the Immobilisation Science Laboratory
(ISL), University of Sheffield. Dr. Bingham’s chief research interests lie at the
boundary between materials science and environmental disciplines. These include
composition/structure/property relations in novel glass-forming systems; formula-
tion of glasses for the safe immobilization of legacy and problematic nuclear and
toxicwastes;modificationofcommercialglassandceramicmaterialsandthere-use
ofwastematerialsthereinforenvironmentalbenefit,energyefficiency,andreduced
atmosphericemissions.
Dr.Binghamhaspublishedover30peer-reviewedscientificpapersandheregu-
larlyreviewsmanuscriptsforseveralmajorinternationaljournals.Hehaspresented
hisresearch,chairedsessions,andgiveninvitedpresentationsatanumberofinter-
nationalconferencesonglassscienceandwastemanagement.Hehasastrongtrack
record in obtaining funding and access to scientific facilities from both academic
andindustrialsourcesandhehasbuiltmanylastingnationalandinternationalcol-
laborations.HehasbeenanactivememberoftheSocietyofGlassTechnologyfor
over 10 years and was elected onto the Basic Science and Technology Committee
in2000.In2004hewaselectedcommitteesecretary.
Contents
PartI ContinuousGlassFibers
1 CommercialandExperimentalGlassFibers . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
FrederickT.Wallenberger
1.1 Overview:GlassMeltandFiberFormation. . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 PrinciplesofGlassMeltFormation . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 PrinciplesofGlassFiberFormation . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.3 StructureofMeltsandFibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.4 SummaryandConclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2 SilicaFibers,Sliver,andFabrics(95–100%SiO ) . . . . . . . 15
2
1.2.1 UltrapureSilicaFibers(99.99–99.999%SiO ) . . . . 15
2
1.2.2 PureSilicaSliverandFabrics(95.5–99.5%SiO ) . . 19
2
1.2.3 SummaryandConclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3 SilicateGlassFibers(50–70%SiO ,1–25%Al O ) . . . . . . 23
2 2 3
1.3.1 FormingGlassFibersfromStrongViscousMelts. . . 23
1.3.2 General-PurposeSilicateGlassFibers . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.3 Special-PurposeSilicateGlassFibers . . . . . . . . . 34
1.3.4 Non-round,BicomponentandHollowSilicateFibers . 54
1.3.5 SummaryandConclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.4 AluminateGlassFibers(≤81%Al O ,≤50%SiO ) . . . . . 60
2 3 2
1.4.1 GlassFibersfromFragileMelts(25–50%
Al O ,10–4%SiO ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2 3 2
1.4.2 GlassFibersfromInviscidMelts
(55–81%Al O ,4–0%SiO ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2 3 2
1.5 Appendix:Single-CrystalAluminaFibers . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1.5.1 Single-CrystalFibersfromInviscidMelts . . . . . . . 77
1.5.2 TheFutureofAluminaandAluminateFibers . . . . . 82
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2 DesignofEnergy-FriendlyGlassFibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
FrederickT.Wallenberger
2.1 PrinciplesofDesigningNewCompositions . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.1.1 Compositional,Energy,andEnvironmentalIssues . . 91
ix
x Contents
2.1.2 TrendLineDesignofNewFiberglassCompositions . 94
2.2 Energy-FriendlyAluminosilicateGlassFibers . . . . . . . . . 99
2.2.1 NewEnergy-FriendlyE-GlassVariantswith
<2%B O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2 3
2.2.2 NewEnergy-FriendlyE-GlassVariantswith
2–10%B O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2 3
2.2.3 NewEnergy-andEnvironmentallyFriendly
ECR-GlassVariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.3 Energy-FriendlySoda–Lime–SilicaGlassFibers. . . . . . . . 116
2.3.1 NewEnergy-FriendlyA-andC-GlassCompositions . 117
2.4 Summary,Conclusions,andPathForward . . . . . . . . . . . 119
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3 CompositeDesignandEngineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
J.H.A.vanderWoudeandE.L.Lawton
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.1.1 ContinuousFibersforReinforcement . . . . . . . . . 125
3.1.2 E-GlassFibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.1.3 FiberglassManufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.1.4 FiberglassSize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.1.5 CompositeMechanicalProperties . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.1.6 Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.2 ThermosetCompositeMaterial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.2.1 LiquidResinProcessingTechniques . . . . . . . . . 142
3.2.2 ThermosettingMatrixResins . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.2.3 Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.2.4 ReleaseAgents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.3 ReinforcedThermoplasticMaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.3.2 SemifinishedMaterialsBasedonThermoplastics . . . 158
3.4 CompositesforWindTurbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.4.2 RawMaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.4.3 Blade-ManufacturingTechniques . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.4.4 BladeDesignMethodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4 GlassFibersforPrintedCircuitBoards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
AnthonyV.Longobardo
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.1.1 PrintedCircuitBoardRequirementsandTheir
ImplicationsforFiberglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.1.2 Fiberglass’RoleinPCBConstruction . . . . . . . . . 177
4.1.3 ElectricalAspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.1.4 StructuralAspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Contents xi
4.2 GlassCompositionalFamilies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.2.1 ImprovementsInitiallyBasedonE-Glass . . . . . . . 184
4.2.2 D-GlassandItsCompositionalImprovements . . . . 188
4.3 FutureNeedsofthePCBMarket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.3.1 TheElectronicsManufacturer’sRoadmap. . . . . . . 191
4.3.2 WhatThisMeansfortheBoardandYarnMakers . . 192
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5 High-StrengthGlassFibersandMarkets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
RobertL.HausrathandAnthonyV.Longobardo
5.1 AttributesofHigh-StrengthGlass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.1.1 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.1.2 ElasticModulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.1.3 ThermalStability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.2 GlassCompositionalFamilies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.2.1 S-Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.2.2 R-Glass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
5.2.3 OtherHigh-StrengthGlasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.3 High-StrengthGlassFibersinPerspective . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.3.1 TheCompetitiveMaterialLandscape . . . . . . . . . 210
5.3.2 InherentAdvantagesofContinuousGlassFibers . . . 215
5.4 MarketsandApplications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.4.1 Defense–HardCompositeArmor . . . . . . . . . . 216
5.4.2 Aerospace–RotorsandInteriors . . . . . . . . . . . 218
5.4.3 Automotive–Belts,Hoses,andMufflers . . . . . . . 220
5.4.4 IndustrialReinforcements–PressureVessels . . . . . 221
5.5 ConcludingRemarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
PartII Soda–Lime–SilicaGlasses
6 CompositionsofIndustrialGlasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
AntonínSmrcˇek
6.1 GuidelinesforIndustrialGlassCompositionSelection . . . . . 229
6.1.1 Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
6.1.2 DemandsontheGlassMelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
6.1.3 Meltability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
6.1.4 Workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
6.1.5 ChoiceofRawMaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
6.1.6 CulletEffect–GlassMeltProductionHeat . . . . . . 236
6.1.7 GlassRefining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.2 IndustrialGlassCompositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.2.1 HistoricalDevelopment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.2.2 FlatGlass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.2.3 ContainerGlass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
6.2.4 Lead-FreeUtilityGlass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250