Fiber Optic Essentials

281 Pages·2005·1.51 MB·english

by  Casimer M. DeCusatis

FIBER OPTIC ESSENTIALS

FIBER OPTIC ESSENTIALS
Casimer M. DeCusatis
DistinguishedEngineer,IBMCorporation,Poughkeepsie,NewYork
and
Carolyn J. Sher DeCusatis
Consultant
AMSTERDAM•BOSTON•HEIDELBERG•LONDON
NEWYORK•OXFORD•PARIS•SANDIEGO
SANFRANCISCO•SINGAPORE•SYDNEY•TOKYO
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Contents
Preface ix
Chapter 1 Fiber, Cables, and Connectors 1
1.1 OpticalFiberPrinciples 4
1.2 BasicTerminology 13
1.3 Single-ModeFiber 16
1.4 MultimodeFiber 19
1.5 FiberBraggGratings(FBGs) 20
1.6 PlasticOpticalFiber 21
1.7 Cables 23
References 26
Chapter 2 Transmitters 29
2.1 BasicTransmitterSpecificationTerminology 30
2.1.1 LaserSafety 32
2.2 LightEmittingDiodes 34
2.3 Lasers 39
2.3.1 DoubleHeterostructureLaserDiodes 43
2.3.2 QuantumWell(QW)andStrainedLayer(SL)Quantum
WellLasers 44
2.3.3 DistributedBraggReflector(DBR)andDistributed
Feedback(DFB)Lasers 45
2.3.4 VerticalCavitySurface-EmittingLasers 47
2.4 Modulators 48
2.4.1 LithiumNiobateModulators 50
2.4.2 ElectroabsorptionModulators 51
2.4.3 ElectroOpticandElectrorefractiveSemiconductor
Modulators 52
References 53
v
vi Contents
Chapter 3 Detectors and Receivers 55
3.1 BasicDetectorSpecificationTerminology 56
3.2 PNPhotodiode 62
3.3 PINPhotodiode 65
3.4 OtherDetectors 73
3.4.1 AvalanchePhotodiode 74
3.4.2 PhotodiodeArray 76
3.4.3 Schottky-BarrierPhotodiodes 78
3.4.4 Metal-Semiconductor-Metal(MSM)Detectors 79
3.4.5 Resonant-CavityEnhancedPhotodetectors(RECAP) 82
3.4.6 InterferometricSensors 83
3.5 Noise 85
3.5.1 ShotNoise 88
3.5.2 ThermalNoise 88
3.5.3 OtherNoiseSources 89
3.5.4 Signal-to-NoiseRatio 90
References 91
Chapter 4 Fiber Optic Link Design 93
4.1 FiguresofMerit 93
4.2 LinkBudgetAnalysis 98
4.2.1 InstallationLoss 98
4.2.2 TransmissionLoss 99
4.2.3 Attenuationvs.Wavelength 99
4.2.4 ConnectorandSpliceLoss 99
4.3 OpticalPowerPenalties 100
4.3.1 Dispersion 100
4.3.2 ModePartitionNoise 103
4.3.3 RelativeIntensityNoise 104
4.3.4 Jitter 105
4.3.5 ModalNoise 106
4.3.6 RadiationInducedLoss 107
References 108
Chapter 5 Repeaters and Optical Amplifiers 111
5.1 Repeaters 114
5.2 OpticalAmplifiers 115
5.2.1 RareEarthDopedOpticalFiberAmplifiers 115
5.2.2 SemiconductorAmplifiers 119
5.2.3 NonlinearEffectsandOpticalAmplifiersforWDM 120
References 124
Chapter 6 Wavelength Multiplexing 125
6.1 WDMDesignConsiderations 130
6.2 NetworkTopologies 135
Contents vii
6.3 Latency 138
6.4 ProtectionandRestoration 143
6.5 NetworkManagement 145
References 146
Chapter 7 Fiber Optic Communication Standards 149
7.1 WhyDoWeNeedStandards? 149
7.2 ESCON/SBCON 154
7.3 FiberDistributedDataInterface 155
7.4 FibreChannelStandard 157
7.5 ATM/SONET 158
7.6 GigabitEthernet 160
7.7 InfiniBand 162
References 163
Chapter 8 Fabrication and Measurement 165
8.1 FabricationTechniques 165
8.1.1 FiberDrawing:LiquidPhaseMethods 166
8.1.2 FiberDrawing:ChemicalVaporDeposition 167
8.2 FiberBraggGratings 170
8.3 SemiconductorDeviceFabrication 171
8.4 MeasurementEquipment 174
8.4.1 FiberOpticPowerMeter 174
8.4.2 OpticalTimeDomainReflectometer(OTDR) 175
8.4.3 BitErrorRateTest(BERT) 176
8.4.4 DigitalSamplingOscilloscope 177
References 179
Chapter 9 Medical Applications 181
9.1 Endoscopes 182
9.1.1 RigidEndoscopes 185
9.1.2 TheClinicalEnvironment 186
9.2 LaserFibers 186
9.2.1 Applications 188
9.3 Illumination 190
9.4 Biosensors 191
References 193
Chapter10 Fiber Facts 195
10.1 BasicInformation 195
10.1.1 Moore’s“Law”andOpticalDataCommunication 196
10.1.2 InternetTraffic 197
10.1.3 Capacityvs.Cost 197
10.2 DisasterRecoveryFacts 198
viii Contents
10.3 FiberforLightingandIllumination 200
10.4 UnusualApplicationsandFutureDevelopments 203
References 204
Chapter11 Fiber Optic Timeline 207
11.1 BasicKnowledgeTimeline 208
11.2 TimelineforSelectedOpticalDataCommunicationsMilestones 211
11.3 TimelineforFiberOpticMilestonesinMedicalApplications 213
References 216
AppendixA Glossary 219
AppendixB Acronyms and Initials 241
AppendixC Measurement Conversion Tables 261
Index 263
Preface
The development of optical fiber technology for communication net-
works, medical applications, and other areas represents a unique conflu-
ence of the physics, electronics, and mechanical engineering disciplines.
Itshistoryextendsbacktotheearliestusesoflightandmirrorsbyancient
civilizations, including many false starts (the so-called “lost generation”
described in Jeff Hect’s book, City of Light), under-appreciated discov-
eries, and success stories. Today, the amount of optical fiber installed
worldwide is equivalent to over 70 round trips to the moon, and this
technology has matured to serve as the backbone of the Internet, the
global telecommunications infrastructure, and the basis of exciting new
developments in illumination, imaging, sensing, and control that were
scarcely imagined when the laser was first developed in the early 1960s.
As this field has grown, many new practitioners with an established
background in physics or electrical engineering have begun to work in
some branch of the optical fiber field. Service technicians accustomed to
working with copper cables have been asked to retrain themselves and
understand the basics of optical cable installation. There are a growing
number of non-traditional workers, including technical marketers, patent
lawyers, and others who are attempting to transition into this area. And
of course, many new students have begun to study this field as well.
Understanding the fundamentals of fiber optics is essential for both the
application designer and the basic researcher, and there are many good
comprehensive references available, some of which extend to multiple
volumes with thousands of pages. Clearly, entire books can and have
been written on the topics of lasers, fiber manufacturing, and related
ix