Fetal Development: Research on Brain and Behavior, Environmental Influences, and Emerging Technologies

497 Pages·2016·15.161 MB·English

by  Nadja Reissland, Barbara S. Kisilevsky (eds.)

Nadja Reissland · Barbara S. Kisilevsky
Editors
Fetal
Development
Research on Brain and Behavior, Environmental
Infl uences, and Emerging Technologies
Foreword by
Gerard H.A. Visser and Eduard J.H. Mulder
Fetal Development

Nadja Reissland • Barbara S. Kisilevsky
Editors
Fetal Development
Research on Brain and Behavior,
Environmental Infl uences, and
Emerging Technologies
Editors
Nadja Reissland Barbara S. Kisilevsky
Department of Psychology School of Nursing
Durham University Queen’s University
Durham , UK Kingston , ON , Canada
ISBN 978-3-319-22022-2 ISBN 978-3-319-22023-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-22023-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015947786
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Foreword
Development begins before birth with the foundation for short and long term
outcomes being laid during gestation, making the prenatal phase probably the
most important period of our structural and functional growth and maturity. It
takes 42 cell divisions from conception to birth and it is obvious that many
factors may infl uence prenatal development during these numerous divisions.
Clearly, studies during the prenatal period are essential for the understanding
of normal and altered development, of the consequences for later life and for
generating strategies to ensure optimal prenatal development.
O ver the years, since the introduction of ultrasound, there have been
numerous scientifi c articles, proceedings, and edited books on fetal behav-
ioral development which today provide a historical perspective on the emer-
gence and transition of the fi eld. The following is a sample selection of edited
books containing a range of foci of fetal research for illustrative purposes.
One of the early books entitled Continuity of neural functions from prenatal
to postnatal life (1984) was edited by Heinz Prechtl. Subsequently, Nijhuis
(1992) edited a volume entitled F etal Behaviour: Developmental and perina-
tal aspects which was followed shortly thereafter by Lecanuet, Fifer,
Krasnegor, and Smotherman’s (1995), F etal Development: A psychobiologi-
cal perspective. The most recent publication (2012), again, by Prechtl and
others was entitled F etal behaviour: a neurodevelopmental approach . These
earlier collections as well as the current one demonstrate the impact that
numerous research laboratories worldwide have had on the understanding of
fetal behavior and neurological development, advancing the fi eld in a rela-
tively brief period of time.
Bringing research on fetal brain and neurological development together is
important for several reasons:
1 . F irst, it shows the miracle of early development of fetal behavior in nor-
mal pregnancies. At around 14 weeks of gestation almost all movement
patterns observed in newborn infants are already present and executed
more or less similarly, taking into account prenatal spatial restrictions and
the absence of gravity. These movements are necessary for muscular
development, for shaping central nervous system (CNS) structures, for in
utero survival (e.g., fetal swallowing to prevent polyhydramnios) and for
adaptation to neonatal functioning (e.g., breathing movements). In the
course of pregnancy, rest-activity cycles develop and at the end of preg-
nancy fully developed fetal behavioral states are present, similar to the
v
vi Foreword
ones of the newborn, and with a cycle length of REM and non-REM sleep
comparable to that of adults. Hence, there is continuity from prenatal to
postnatal life. Alterations in fetal blood fl ow distribution associated with
sleep states show the high level of organization before birth.
2 . K nowledge of fetal behavior is important for the assessment of fetal
health. This holds for the interpretation of fetal movement patterns, assess-
ment of fetal heart rate patterns, with prolonged episodes of low fetal heart
rate variation as part of non-REM sleep and for the understanding of the
absence of fetal reactions to external stimulation during non-REM sleep.
3. Knowledge of the quantity and quality of fetal movements and of the devel-
opment of fetal behavioral states facilitates assessment of CNS integrity.
Moreover, it allows investigations of altered fetal development in cases of
pregnancy complications such as maternal diabetes. Similarly, the effect of
fetal growth restriction may be studied and the effects of maternal stress
and emotions, external stimuli, medication, drugs, and alcohol. This is the
fi eld of fetal behavioral teratogenicity.
4. Finally, fetal behavioral studies facilitate research linking disturbances in
prenatal development to long-term outcome, as part of the Developmental
Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD).
I n this book the following issues are addressed: (novel) techniques to
study fetal behavior including functional MRI and fetal heart rate patterns;
the normal development of fetal behavior; assessment tools to study CNS
integrity; numerous examples of altered intrauterine development due to
behavioral teratogens such as maternal alcohol ingestion; studies linking
abnormal development to impaired later outcome; and fi nally chapters
addressing the importance of animal models for studying prenatal behavioral
development. In observational studies in the human it remains diffi cult to
attribute abnormal development to either external infl uences for instance due
to stress or medication or genetic background, whereas in animal studies a
randomized controlled design allows for unequivocal study of the former.
We would like to congratulate Barbara Kisilevsky and Nadja Reissland for
the great effort they undertook to convince many distinguished researchers to
contribute a chapter to this book. It has resulted in an overview of the whole
spectrum of fetal neurological, brain, and behavioral development: a must for
everyone interested in the beginning of development and on factors that may
either facilitate or hamper that development.
Utrecht, The Netherlands Gerard H. A. Visser
Eduard J. H. Mulder
Pref ace
This edited volume was motivated by the need for an updated overview of the
psychobiological study of fetal development, bringing together information
from diverse areas into a single source. The fi eld has a relatively brief scien-
tifi c history, with systematic study only beginning in the latter part of the
twentieth century. While observations of behavior (heart rate and body move-
ments) and behavior change had been used in earlier work, the introduction
and ready availability of ultrasound equipment with sophisticated image pro-
cessing techniques provided a window into the womb, partially addressing
the challenges of inaccessibility. Research theories and methods advanced
along with technology as confi rmatory evidence of the infl uential effects of
the prenatal period on long-term outcome emerged. To illustrate the state-of-
the-science, chapters provide historical appraisals, summaries of questions
that have been addressed, and of discoveries that have been made in both
human investigations and animal models. The historical overview is comple-
mented with potential directions for future research considering the paths that
could, or should, or might yet be taken.
The chapters are divided into three broad sections: brain-behavior devel-
opment, environmental infl uences, and emerging technology. Chapters focus-
ing on fundamental brain-behavior development and functioning are further
divided into two parts. The fi rst part includes those using animal models rang-
ing from mouse to chimpanzee. Insights gained from studies of various ani-
mal models employ methods which cannot be used with human participants
to explain behavior. The importance of the use of animals is refl ected in data
collected under strictly controlled conditions which are essential in generat-
ing theories of early perceptual, cognitive, and social development explained
with biological and neurophysiological mechanisms. The second part
includes studies examining human fetuses. Observations have identifi ed the
onset and characterized the maturation of spontaneous behaviors including
heart rate, its variability and patterns, as well as body, limb, eye, breathing,
and mouth movements. Over gestation, there is increasing coordination
among these behaviors resulting in organized behavioral states. Development
of the sensory systems, in particular audition and touch, is illustrated, employ-
ing changes in behavior, elicited by acoustic and/or vibroacoustic stimuli.
Behavior is described not only for fetuses developing in a normal pregnancy
but also differential development in groups subjected to atypical environ-
ments. These studies are designed to ultimately play a role in identifying
clinical markers of neuropathology. Preliminary work on the use of behaviors
vii
viii Preface
in the assessment of fetal well-being is explored in various chapters throughout
the book.
The second section includes chapters which investigate environmental
infl uences on short- and long-term developmental outcome. This section
also is divided into two parts, with researchers in the fi rst examining the fetal
effects of maternal emotions during pregnancy and in the second, identify-
ing the consequences of iron defi ciency, maternal alcohol ingestion, and
serotonin reuptake inhibitor exposure. The infl uence of maternal mental
health including maternal stress, depression, and anxiety is attributed by
some to fetal “programming.” Studies of iron defi ciency and alcohol terato-
genicity assess links between genetic and epigenetic factors leading to nega-
tive neurodevelopmental outcomes. Studies of serotonin reuptake inhibitors
question whether the effects refl ect an acute short-lived pharmacological
phenomenon or sustained neurological changes associated with neurotrans-
mitter signaling.
The fi nal section describes new technologies, the issues, and promise they
hold for directly linking human brain activity and behavior. Fetal magnetic
resonance imaging and magnetoencephalography permit direct determina-
tions of brain structure and function with the latter measuring fetal neuronal
activity and precisely determining brain development. Magnetocardiography
allows for measuring the effects of interventions on the development of fetal
neurobehaviors and cardiac autonomic control. Incorporating HD live soft-
ware into ultrasound holds the promise of facilitating future behavioral
research on twins.
The thematic sections provide a means of organizing the content of this
volume. Given that the chapters cover a gamut of developmental issues from
gene expression, neurotransmitter synthesis and metabolism, brain structure/
growth, neurobehavior, and neurocognition as well as nutritional, pharmaco-
logical, psychological, and social factors associated with specifi c behaviors
within the context of developmental vulnerability and neuroplasticity, the
diversity of research questions and methods cross traditional boundaries.
Thus, research in any one chapter is not mutually exclusive to the particular
theme. Overall, the book provides the reader with a historical perspective of
fetal psychobiological research, a current overview of fi ndings, and proposals
for future research directions (see Afterword). The diversity of issues included
in this volume demonstrates the importance of research on prenatal develop-
ment from a multidisciplinary approach including animal models and human
fetuses, incorporating genetic, epigenetic, behavioral, and sophisticated
imaging research techniques.
Kingston, ON, Canada Barbara S. Kisilevsky
Durham, UK Nadja Reissland
Contents
Part I Brain-Behavior Development: Animal Models
1 Using an Animal Model to Explore the Prenatal
Origins of Social Development ..................................................... 3
Robert Lickliter and Lorraine E. Bahrick
2 Fetal and Birth Experiences: Proximate Effects,
Developmental Consequences, Epigenetic Legacies .................. 15
April E. Ronca and Jeffrey R. Alberts
3 Yoke Motor Learning in the Fetal Rat: A Model System
for Prenatal Behavioral Development ......................................... 43
Scott R. Robinson
4 Fetal Behavioral Development and Brain Growth
in Chimpanzees Versus Humans: A View from Studies
with 4D Ultrasonography ............................................................. 67
Hideko Takeshita , Satoshi Hirata , Tomoko Sakai ,
and Masako Myowa-Yamakoshi
Part II Brain-Behavior Development: Human Fetuses
5 Fetal Behavior: Clinical and Experimental
Research in the Human ................................................................ 87
Eduard J. H. Mulder and Gerard H. A. Visser
6 Fetal Behavioral and Psychoneurological Development ........... 107
Jan G. Nijhuis
7 Linear and Nonlinear Analysis of Fetal
Heart Rate Variability .................................................................. 119
Hernâni Gonçalves , Diogo Ayres-de-Campos ,
and João Bernardes
8 Fetal Auditory Processing: Implications
for Language Development? ........................................................ 133
Barbara S. Kisilevsky
9 The Fetal Observable Movement System (FOMS) .................... 153
Nadja Reissland , Brian Francis , and Louisa Buttanshaw
ix