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Volume 4, Issue 1, Summer 2004 FEMALE FIGURE IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUE (FFIT) FOR APPAREL PART I: DESCRIBING FEMALE SHAPES Karla Simmons, Ph.D. University of Missouri Cynthia L. Istook, Associate Professor, North Carolina State University Priya Devarajan, Marketing Research Analyst, Lectra USA Inc. Abstract Sizing standards used in the United States that identify the body measurements used in the design and development of clothing were established from identified “best practices” of the apparel industry. However, the industry as a whole has not adopted a single system of clothing sizing. We know that manufacturers and retailers use their own sizing systems as a marketing tool, convinced that this is a differential advantage of their product for their market. Regardless of the sizing systems used, however, almost all are based on the myth that humans have mathematically proportional bodies and that they grow in proportional ways. In addition, the shapes and proportions of today’s American population differ greatly from the shapes of the generations before. So a variety of issues impact our inability to ‘fit’ the American customer of today. These fit issues continue to be a growing concern. This article, as Part One of two, describes the historical process involved in describing the body shapes of humans. In addition, it lays the theoretical framework for the development of an expert shape sorting system using 3D body scan data. Keywords: FFIT for Apparel, shape sorting, sizing standards, mass customization, fit, female figure types FEMALE FIGURE IDENTIFICATION resulted in the formation of several size TECHNIQUE groupings. (FFIT) FOR APPAREL PART I: DESCRIBING FEMALE Additionally, the shapes and SHAPES proportions of today’s American population differ greatly from the shapes of the Introduction generations before. Because the clothing sizing system is based on a study from the Currently, clothing sizes are based on 1940s, many fit problems are occurring with a biased study that is over 6 decades old. consumers. These fit issues continue to be a This method of sizing does not conform to growing concern (Cotton Inc., 2002a, 200b, the diversity of human shapes that currently 1998, 1997). Regardless of how one defines exist in the United States. Attempts to fit exactly, it must always start from basic classify body shapes into analogous types, in human proportional truths. The fact that our order to establish size standards, have current sizing systems strays so far from this Article Designation: Refereed 1 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 1,Summer 2004 fact is a significant problem for retailers and (cid:137) “A correspondence in three- manufacturers, alike. dimensional form and in placement of detail between the figure and its New and improved technologies are covering to suit the purpose of the now available that allow realistic images of garment, to provide for activity, and human bodies to be classified into categories to fulfill the intended style (Berry, that will better reflect the differential 1963).” proportions of the true American population. (cid:137) ‘Simply a matter of length and Mega-computing power, three-dimensional width in each part of the pattern body scanning, dimensional design being correct for your figure programs, and computer-aided-design (Minott, 1978).” software are allowing advances in the product development process that will lead Much research has been conducted over to a seamless technology of customized the years on the topic of fit of apparel clothing and ready-to-wear garments that (AAMA, 1975; Croney, 1977; O’Brien & can provide fit, as they have been designed Shelton, 1941). In general, consumers have to do. Some attempts have been made to been dissatisfied with fit for some time. chart the body in two dimensions but they Some of this dissatisfaction could be do not yield a satisfactory illustration of true associated with the fact that the current body shape. sizing system for the manufacturing of garments is based on body measurements Research Purpose and Methodology that are more that 60 years old (Salusso- Deonier, 1982). Dissatisfaction with fit can The research of this study focused on also be attributed to several factors that have two basic objectives: 1) to determine if the changed the average body types: diets current sizing systems actually meet the (Meek, 1994; Tamburrino, 1992a), physical needs of today’s female population and 2) to exercise and activities (LaBat, 1987; develop preliminary subgroups for the Tamburrino, 1992b), increased immigration female population that might aid in the (Meek, 1994), disproportionate growth rates description of their various shapes. The first in minority groups (Meek, 1994), sedentary part of the research methodology involved lifestyles (CNN, 2001), and changes in the development of software that would ideals of masculinity and femininity (Meek, allow for comparison of 3D body scan data 1994). of female subjects to recognized standards for body measurements. The second part of The United States population the research methodology was to find out distribution has gone through dramatic how female shapes are currently described physiological and demographic and to identify ways that they might be more transformations since the 1940s when the appropriately described when using 3D body O’Brien and Sheldon study (upon which our scanned data. current sizing system is based) was undertaken. For many years, the United Literature Review States population has been a mixture of ethnic origins. But over time, the Fit and Sizing Issues configuration of this mixture has changed. Minority groups have become larger and The purpose of a sizing system for new groups of immigrants have been added apparel should be to make clothing available to the mixture (LePechoux, 1998; US in a range of sizes that fits as many people Census, 2000). With consumer trends and as possible (Ashdown, 1998; LaBat, 1987). products becoming universal, free trade is Apparel design and production experts opening an increasing number of foreign believe that the fit of a garment is one of the markets to U.S. commerce. Worldwide most important factors in producing interaction and travel are heading toward garments that flatter the individual (Minott, increased interracial mixes. Projections for 1978). Fit has been defined as: the number of multiracial Americans will be Article Designation: Refereed 2 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 1,Summer 2004 released in a report in 2005 (FOXNews, three numerals is called the somatotype” of 2004). These progressions have had direct the individual (Sheldon et al, 1940, p3). impact on body measurements of the Sheldon and his colleagues had worked out international consumer. Many studies have a system to measure these components and been conducted around the idea that body express them numerically (Inner proportions differ according to their racial Explorations, 1999). These components origin (Abesekera & Shahnavaz, 1989; Al- were called endomorphy, mesomorphy, and Haboubi, 1992; Hertzberg, 1972; ectomorphy. Carter and Heath (1990) Hutchingson, 1981; Miller, 1993; NASA, maintained that “the procedure (of 1978). The racial mixture in the United somatotyping) was laborious and obviously States is definitely different than in the not feasible for general use” (p. 31). Tanner 1940s when the body measurements used to (1964) said “this system does not work, and develop the current standard were taken. has never, in fact, been used” (p. 37). In the 1960s, the research team of History of Figure Typing/Somatotyping Lindsay Carter and Barbara Heath collaborated on continuing the modification In the pre-Christian era, the Greeks of Sheldon’s somatype methodology (Heath, dominated the scientific and philosophical 1963). The validation of the modifications studies of the time. As early as 400 BC, the and the presentation of the Heath-Carter founder of modern medicine, Hippocrates, modified somatotype method were products had proposed that certain physical types of this joint effort (Heath & Carter, 1967). were susceptible to certain diseases (Wells, 1983). In the fourth century BC, Aristotle Also influenced by Sheldon, another attempted to additionally elaborate and researcher became interested in develop Hippocrates’ ideas (Tsang, Chan, & somatometry with respects to the clothing Taylor, 1940). Around the seventeenth industry. Dr. Helen Douty, a clothing century, anthropometry started to be used in specialist in the School of Home Economics combination with morphology. At the at Auburn University, believed a greater University of Padua, Elsholtz documented a understanding of the body and of the method for taking body measurements. It principles of aesthetics could allow students would be two hundred years later before to become more successful at solving Quetlet would be a pioneer in studying the problems and creating illusions in relation to measurements of man statistically (Carter & the fit of clothing. Realizing the difficulty of Heath, 1990). measuring the body visually in three dimensions, Dr. Douty believed that a The twentieth century had the most silhouette projected onto a graph simplified significant contributions of any time period the entire process. It showed the body mass before that concerning the figure typing and and shape in graph form, where the classifications of the human body. In the characteristics were clearly visible and could early 1920s, a German psychiatrist, Ernst be analyzed objectively and classified into Kretschmer, grouped the human body-build figure types (Douty, 1968). in four basic categories. His bodily characteristics were, like those of most early An Italian company called CAD physicians, associated with particular Modeling believes that body-scanning disease susceptibilities. technology is very useful in its output of data, but all data should be relative to the The most significant contribution to the mathematical model of the volume of the existence of body type classifications began naked body, the 3D volume. They also think in the 1930s by American psychologist that within a population, only a few William Sheldon. In 1940, Sheldon, with consumers have a body type, which exactly Stevens and Tucker, introduced the concept fits the standard forms. CAD Modeling has of “somatotype” in their book The Varieties proposed the idea that it is possible to of Human Physique. “The patterning of the individualize all possible human physical morphological components as expressed by Article Designation: Refereed 3 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 1,Summer 2004 structures with a few parameters that Table 1. Common Shape Groupings. correspond to the most important and irregular body features with respect to Figure Type Traits Illustration clothing needs (Quattrocolo & Holzer, Trianglec, h, I, j, Shoulders 1992). Those parameters include the n, o, p narrower physical base, height, and size. “A” Framel, m, than hip. Peara, b, d, e Bottom When descriptions of different body or Spoong, k heavy with figure types are being discussed, the terms Christmas weight “endomorph, mesomorph, and ectomorph” Treef mainly in are not usually the most common. Most buttocks, often, terms are divided into two separate low hips groups of “apple, pear, triangle, oval” or and thighs. “Missy, Junior, Women’s, Half-Size”. All of Bust is these terms can be very confusing. Some small to appear misleading because they seem to medium. indicate the age of the person. Others just Upper seem to be saying the same thing (isn’t the body shape of a pear the same as a triangle, being smaller proportionately larger on the bottom than the than lower top?). body. Inverted Heaviest All of these terms are associated with Triangle c, p, h, I, part of the pattern industry. Unlike ready-to-wear j, o, n body is on apparel manufacturers, American pattern Coneg, k top. companies agreed on the body “V” Framed, m Shoulders measurements that were used for each size, wider than even though, they changed the standard hips. measurements four times before 1972 Weigh gain (Palmer & Alto, 1998). The pattern industry in upper then devised its own standard set of figure body and types and sizes. Many pattern making and stomach. sewing books (Armstrong, 2000; Liechty, Usually Pottberg, & Rasband, 1995) reference these large chest. figure types as having differences in height Very and contour according to its designation. narrow hips. The other grouping of terminology for Rectanglec, p, h, No figure types is categorized by names of I, j, o, n definition shapes, letters/numbers, and Rulerg, k at the fruits/vegetables. Apple and pear are “H” Framem, l waistline. identifiers in the fruits/vegetables category. Shoulders Oval, circle, round, hourglass, diamond, and hip rectangle, straight, ruler, triangle, inverted about the triangle, spoon, Christmas tree, and cone same belong to the shapes category. In the letters/ width. numbers category, “O”, “X”, “H”, “A”, and Equal body figure 8 are included. These lists are not proportions exhaustive as other terms may apply. Table . 1 characterizes these figure types. Article Designation: Refereed 4 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 1,Summer 2004 Hourglassc, g, h, Equally (Lajoie, 1999). In 2000, Lands’ End I, j, k, n, o, p broad on sponsored the “My Virtual Model Tour Figure 8m top and 2000” as the world’s first body scanning “X” Framel hips. truck. Individuals were scanned with a (TC)2 Thin at the scanner and a realistic, size accurate virtual waist, model was created with the scan usually 10 measurements and could be used to try on or more clothes, create outfits, and determine what inches size to buy through the Lands’ End catalog smaller and website (Lands’ End, 2001). than chest and hips. Large, well-organized groups are using 3D body scanning technology to Ovalc, h, I, j Top and gather anthropometric data. One project was the Civilian American and European Circle/Rounde bottom are do narrow. Anthropometry Resource (CEASAR) Applea, e Chest and project. This effort attempted to gather data Diamondp, o belly are relating to the various shapes and sizes of “O” Framel where the Western world’s 18- to 65-year-old population using a Cyberware WB-4 whole weight is body scanner (Ponticel, 1999). found. Skinny In the Fall of 2001, Size UK, a legs. comprehensive national sizing survey of the United Kingdom (UK), was completed Note: (a) Self, 2000 (b) iVillage.com, 2001 utilizing the 3D body scanning technology (c) la.assortment.com, 2001 (d) by (TC)2 . This was the first national sizing teraformahealth.com, 2001 (e) survey in over 50 years, and the first time tinajuanfitness.com, 1999 (f) Farro, 1996 (g) that shape data will have been collected of Jackowski, 1995 (h)betterhalf.com, 2001 (i) the UK population ([TC]2, 2001). SizeUSA, carlamathis.com, 2001(j) Beauty Is, 2001 (k) a collection of 3D body measurement data exude.com, 2001 (l) Duffy, 1987 (m) Your of over 10,000 men and women in the US, Total Image, 2001 (n) Palmer & Alto, 1998 was completed in the Fall of 2003 and (o) Rasband, 1994 (p) eswimmers.com, findings reported in the Winter of 2004 2001 ([TC]2, 2004). SizeMexico is planned in for late 2004 and SizeCanada is in the Three-Dimensional Body Scanning developmental stage. The combination of these surveys provides significant During the 1960s, research began on opportunities for the evaluation and technology that would revolutionize the development of sizing systems on a more study of human measurement. It wasn’t until international basis. the early 1990s, however, that three- dimensional (3D) body scanning technology Several studies have been completed would make significant contributions to the concerning 3D body scanning. A 2000 study apparel industry. by McKinnon investigated the effect of respiration and foot stance in a whole body As the current, most advanced user of scanner on critical measurements of the this technology, the apparel industry has body. An analysis of differing types of noteworthy potential for its use while the scanners and scanner manufacturers was concept is still in its early stages of revealed in a study by Simmons and Istook development. There are some retailers and (2001). A comparative analysis of the manufacturers who have adopted 3D body Textile/Clothing Technology Corporation scanning with open arms. Levi Strauss (TC)2 scanner models 2T4 and 3T6 was also premiered a body scanning program for conducted (McKinnon & Istook, 2001). custom jeans called Levi’s Original Spin Article Designation: Refereed 5 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 1,Summer 2004 From a 2001 study comparing the body • Knowing more than we can tell measurement techniques of three different (Polanyi, 1966). scanners, it was found that the (TC)2 scanner • Found in the heads of an was the most appropriate for the use of organization’s employees being far measurement extraction in the more difficult to access and use for manufacturing of clothing (Simmons & obvious reasons (bestbooks.biz, Istook, 2002). 2002). • The personal knowledge in people’s Full body scanning has the potential to heads, which has not been written provide the data needed to identify and down or documented. It is largely characterize the segments of the population gained through experience and is not being served well with current sizing influenced by beliefs, perspectives, systems. Development of models that use and values. Tacit knowledge usually three-dimensional body scan data to identify requires joint, shared activities in different body types can provide the industry order to transmit it. Personal (tacit) with tools to identify and design for these skills such as expertise, gut feel, market segments that are not being provided subjective insights, and intuitions with well-fitting clothing. are not easily communicated and documented (hyltonassociates.com, Theoretical Framework 2002). • Knowledge that is used as a tool to Data lives in our lives and on our handle or improve what is in focus desks as isolated elements. Only when we (Svelby, 1997). assemble this data into a significant • An aspect of practically intelligent configuration do we have information. behavior that is acquired through When this information is converted into a experience and is unrelated to valid foundation for action, it becomes general cognitive ability (Wagner, knowledge. Knowledge is “taken to be an 1985). attitude towards a proposition which is true (Dienes & Perner, 1999). Knowledge Tacit knowledge allows a person to management is a strategy that turns an engage in an activity and have little or no organization’s intellectual assets (both conscious experience of what it is causing it. recorded information and the talents of its Wagner states that it is not simply the members) into greater productivity, new amount of experience that matters but also value, and increased competitiveness how well one is able to learn from and apply (Murray, 2002). knowledge gained through experience (Wagner, 1985 & 1987). This recorded information, which is obvious knowledge found in manuals, Many industries have begun to documentation, files, and other accessible understand and use tacit knowledge to sources, is known as explicit knowledge enhance their future performance: law (bestbooks.com, 2002). Explicit knowledge enforcement (Kerr, 1995), social work is information and skills that are easily (Holland, 1985; Imre, 1985), anthropology communicated and conveyed to others. It is (Heath, 1984), survey research methods and shared, stored, and distributed sampling (Maynard, Houtkoop-Steenstra, (hyltonassociates.com, 2002). Schaeffer, Van Der Zouwen, 2002), systems engineering (Tatalias & Kelly, 2001), However, the greater level of gemology (Collins, 2001), laser-building knowledge in an organization is tacit- (Collins, 1992), nuclear weapons unarticulated knowledge (Saint-Onge, 1996) (MacKenzie & Spinardi, 1995), biology and may be the real key to getting things (Jordan & Lynch, 1992), and vetinerinary done (Murray, 2002). The definition of tacit science (Pin., Collins, & Carbone, 1996). knowledge has been identified in several ways: Article Designation: Refereed 6 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 1,Summer 2004 This research was an effort to use both Database Development explicit and tacit knowledge to aid in the development of clothing that should be A convenience sample of women was better able to meet the needs of the female solicited primarily from the Triangle area of consumer of today. Capturing and applying North Carolina (Raleigh, Durham, and tacit knowledge was an important first step Cary). Each subject was informed of the in what is likely to be a long developmental scanning procedure, possible risks, process. confidentiality, and contacts in accordance with the rules of a Human Subject Review Methodology Board at the university. Demographic information was also collected for each The first step in achieving the subject. objective of this research was to develop a database of three-dimensional body scan Subjects wore close fitting athletic data, from a variety of consumer markets, gear to be scanned. Extracted measurements, which included measurement data, 3D point 3D point cloud data, and reduced body data cloud data, and demographic data. This were stored and maintained entirely by the initial step provided an established catalog subject identification number given to each of subjects for all research pertaining to 3- subject. No potential subject was excluded dimensional body scanning. on the basis of race, size or shape. Women ages 18 and older, who had complete The second step was to develop a demographic data, good 3D body scans, and “Best Fit” software, using Microsoft Access, complete extracted measurement data were to compare the 3D measurement data of a used for the sizing system evaluation in this selected group of subjects to the sizing study. systems that have been developed in the US since the 1941 study by O’Brien and Best Fit Evaluation Sheldon. The final step in this study was to review the ways in which female shapes are Two tables were created in Microsoft currently described and to develop a Access, one for storing the sizing standards description that could be used that would (called Projections) and the other for storing encompass the 3 dimensional shapes of the subject measurements. Current ASTM women, rather than only their silhouette. sizing standards, as well as past standards, were chosen for the evaluation because, with each revision, groupings of body types were added and/or taken away. See Table 2 for a complete listing of all standards used in the study. Article Designation: Refereed 7 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 1,Summer 2004 Table 2. Standards included in the Best Fit  Database Standard Size Standard Size ASTM 5585 2-20 CS215-58 8-12 Missy (S,F) ASTM 5586 (55+) 3-17 CS215-58 30-42 Junior Women’s (R,A) ASTM 5586 (55+) 3-15 CS215-58 32-40 Junior Petite Women’s (T,A) ASTM 5586 (55+) 8-18 CS215-58 32-42 Misses Petite Women’s (R,S) ASTM 5586 (55+) 6-22 CS215-58 28-38 Missy Women’s (R,F) ASTM 5586 (55+) 10-22 CS215-58 30-36 Misses Tall Women’s (T,F) ASTM 5586 (55+) 12.5-26.5 CS215-58 10.5-24.5 Half Sizes Half Sizes (S,A) ASTM 5586 (55+) 34-52 CS215-58 12.5-22.5 Women’s Half Sizes (S,S) CS215-58 8-22 CS215-58 8.5-20.5 Missy (R,A) Half Sizes (S,F) CS215-58 10-20 PS42-70 3-17 Missy (T,A) Junior CS215-58 8-18 PS42-70 Missy (S,A) Junior Petite CS215-58 10-22 PS42-70 Missy (R,S) Missy Petite CS215-58 12-18 PS42-70 Missy (T,S) Missy Tall CS215-58 12-18 PS42-70 Missy (S,S) Women’s CS215-58 8-16 PS42-70 Missy (R,F) Half Sizes CS215-58 10-14 Missy (R,T) There were 21 subject measurements Difference and Weighted Tolerance compared with those found in the various Difference. standards. These measurements were selected from the many available from body Percentage Difference scan data, because they were common among all of the standards and met the The Percent Difference formula measurement definitions within the calculated the closest size based on the standards. A ‘Form’ designed in the Access percentage difference between the subject’s software compared 21 of each subject’s measurement and the standard measure that measurements with the same measures for was determined to provide the “Best Fit”. each of the size standards. It then calculated For every 5% difference between the and displayed the best fitting standard that standard and the subject’s measurement, the was closest to the subject’s body size. The ‘Difference’ was calculated as one. The comparison was completed in three different number of measures that were 5% or more ways – Percentage Difference, Tolerance different from the Best Fit standard is displayed as ‘Distance’. A positive number Article Designation: Refereed 8 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 1,Summer 2004 indicated that the scan data was larger than was within three times the tolerance level, it the Best Fit standard. A negative number became two or else, the value of Difference indicated that the Best Fit standard was was three. The ‘Difference’ values of all the larger than the scan data. The standard that 21 measurements were added up to get the had the lowest ‘Distance’ value was final “Distance”. As before, the standard determined to be the standard that would size having the lowest ‘Distance’ value was provide the “Best Fit” for the subject. determined to be the standard size that would provide the “Best Fit” for the Tolerance Difference individual. For the Tolerance Difference formula, “Best Fit” Results each measurement was given a tolerance limit. If the difference between the subject’s Percentage Difference Results measurement and the standard measurement fell within this value, the difference was Using the Percentage Difference counted as zero. If the measurement fell method, the standard that provided the ‘Best outside the tolerance value, the difference Fit’ for the largest number of subjects (over was counted as one. The tolerances were 44%) was the CS215-58 database. taken from the Apparel Design and Regardless, more than 93% of the subjects’ Production Handbook (Fashiondex, 1998), measurements were greater than 5% larger which includes a list of tolerances than the standard that gave them the best fit. customarily used by the apparel manufacturing industry. This was proposed Tolerance Level Results as a logical way to evaluate fit, since production of clothing generally is allowed When using the Tolerance Difference to fall within the specified tolerance, so too method, the standard that provided the ‘Best might bodies. The standard corresponding Fit’ for the largest number of subjects (over to the least value of ‘Distance’ was taken as 35%) was the 55+ASTM 5586-95 standard. the closest standard size to provide the “Best The average number of measurements that Fit” for the individual. were out of tolerance within this “Best Fit” standard was 10 out of the 21 measurements. Weighted Tolerance That is, for every subject, at least 48% of the measurements were not within the tolerance A Weighted Tolerance formula was limits for their “Best Fit” standard size. developed to calculate the degree to which a measurement was out of tolerance with the Among the 254 subjects in the standard. This formula was proposed to database, the number of people whose allow researchers the opportunity to “value” measurement fell out of tolerance for each the degree to which a standard might depart measurement category was determined. The from providing good fit. The value of results are shown in the Figure 1. Among ‘Difference’ was increased from zero to 254 subjects, 253 people fell out of tolerance three based on the tolerance level. For from their standard in the bust measurement. example, if the difference between the Likewise, more than 100 subjects fell out of subject’s measurement and the standard tolerance in all of the twenty-one measurement was within tolerance, the value measurements. Overall, at least 74% of the of Difference was zero; if it was within subjects fell out of tolerance from their twice the tolerance value, it was one, if it standard size in their body measurements. Article Designation: Refereed 9 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 1,Summer 2004 Number of Subjects out of Tolerance from the Standard 1 of Subjects 230000 Bust-172 Waist-186 HighHip-220 Hip-171 NeckBase-153 UpperArm-182 ThighMax-150 Total Crotch-204 Cervical Height-157 Waist Height-201 Hip Height-240 Crotch Height-220 Front Waist Length-184 Back Waist Length-183 Rise-212 Across Shoulder-168 Shoulder Length-189 Cross Back Width-187 Cross Chest Width-177 Arm Length-226 Bust Pt to Bust Pt-20 r e b 100 m u N 0 Measurements Figure 1. Tolerance difference for each measurement. Weighted Tolerance 100% 80% e g 60% a cent Three Per 40% Two One 20% Zero 0% Measurements Figure 2. Weighted tolerance differences for each measurement. Article Designation: Refereed 10 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 1,Summer 2004

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Keywords: FFIT for Apparel, shape sorting, sizing standards, mass customization, fit, female . century, anthropometry started to be used in .. Current ASTM sizing standards, as well as past standards, were chosen for the evaluation because, with each revision, groupings of body types were.
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