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M06_STAL4104_01_SE_CH06.QXD 5/20/10 10:36 AM Page 102 The quickest way to kill a fashion is to see your grandmother wearing it. 111000222 M06_STAL4104_01_SE_CH06.QXD 5/20/10 10:36 AM Page 103 FASHION PRINCIPLES, PERSPECTIVES, and THEORIES LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of the chapter, students will be able to: • State and explain the eight principles of fashion. • Describe at least two examples of historical continuity as it relates to fashion. • Distinguish among the different theories of fashion innovation and diffusion and state the major premise for each theory. • Compare characteristics of fashion innovators and fashion followers. • Explain a style tribe as it relates to fashion adoption. • Apply Laver’s theory on the timeline of acceptability to a variety of past and present fashions. • Argue the likelihood that James Laver’s theory on the shifting erogenous zone is still a part of contemporary fashion. • Identify the various purposes of fashion in modern Western civilization. 6 103 M06_STAL4104_01_SE_CH06.QXD 5/20/10 10:36 AM Page 104 Principles of Fashion Fashion marketers use fashion principles as guides on which to base business decisions. When marketers understand the important principles of fashion, they make educated and profitable decisions. Since crystal balls do not really exist and it is impossible to know what the future holds, fashion forecasters rely on guiding principles to identify the designs most likely to suc- ceed among the targeted consumers. Students of fashion should commit these fashion principles to memory. They are unique to this industry, yet they have a broad application that reaches to just about any product that has an element of fashion. The following section pre- sents a detailed discussion of each principle. FASHION FACTS:Principles of Fashion • Fashion is not related to price. • All fashions end in excess. • Fashion change is usually • The consumer is king or queen and • Fashion requires imitation of style evolutionary; it is rarely revolutionary. decides what will or will not become orlook. • Fashion is a reflection of the way of a fashion. • Fashion change moves in a cyclical life at a given time. • Sales promotion cannot reverse the pattern. decline in popularity of a fashion. Fashion Is Not a Price Consumers can purchase a similar fashion look at any price point, regardless of their budgets. True fashion is available to persons from most income levels. Being fashionable does not re- quire consumers to spend a great deal of money on clothing. Because of mass media and mass production, consumers can view and purchase similar styles of clothing manufactured at prices to fit their budgets. For example, if a nautical trend is quite fashionable one season, then a navy-and-white color combination will be a featured color combination in most stores that sell fashion apparel, from mass merchandise stores to high-end specialty stores. The same might be true if embossing is the fashionable look for leather goods. Whether a customer purchases PVC shoes at Payless Shoe Source or top grain leather at Steve Madden, the embossed look will likely be available. The instant accessibility of fashion images on the Internet and television creates a large-scale fashion demand for similar looks. Fashions at all price points can coexist and may appeal to the same consumer. As an example,GossipGirlstylistEricDamanbelievesinmixingpricezonestogetherforparticu- larfashionlooksontheshow.Whenaskedwhetherhetriestomakethelooksapproachable or aspirational, he explained, “I always make sure I mix some of the higher-end looks with something from a less expensive brand. I use stuff from Forever 21 and H&M all the time” (Kaplan,J.,2008,Aug.22).Damanfurtherexplainedthatitisnotuncommontospot“some- onewearinga$5,000dresswithapairofNineWestshoes.Thatishowpeopledresstoday anyway—they are always mixing high and low” (Kaplan, J., 2008, Aug. 22). This high-low dressing trend means that shoppers are looking for trend-right items at fast-fashion or value retailers to complement a more expensive branded piece (Poggi, J., 2007, Jan. 8). First Lady Michelle Obama has often been described by fashion media as looking chic in high-lowfashions. 104 chapter six M06_STAL4104_01_SE_CH06.QXD 5/20/10 10:36 AM Page 105 The Consumer Is King or Queen TherunwaysofParis,Milan,andNewYorkareoftenthebirthanddeathofsomestyles,never tobemass-produced.Arunwaydesignerintroducesauniquestyleinthehopethatitmightbe- comethestartingpointofanewfashion.Butfashionisnotasyntheticcreationofpowerfulde- signers,famouscelebrities,orlargeretailers.Theycanonlyintroduceitasaworthwhilestyle,but its ultimate popularity depends on the public’s discretion. Unless a majority of a given group wearsastyle,thestyleneverbecomesafashion;itsimplyremainsastyle.Consumersandtheir pocketbookshavethefinalsay-sointhesuccessorfailureofafashion. Sales Promotion Cannot Reverse a Fashion’s Decline Once a fashion begins the downward slope of its life cycle, it is soon on its way to obsolescence. Marketers cannot change this direction, no matter how much they advertise, display, mark down, or otherwise promote the fashion. They might be able to extend the life cycle if they add new colors, fabrics, or prints to the line before sales begin to decline. However, the down- turn in sales generally signals the ultimate demise of the fashion, and marketers should focus the limited resources of the promotional budget on advertising and promoting newer fashions. All Fashions End in Excess Figure 6.1 Retailers clearance This statement made by the famous 1920s Paris couturier Paul Poiret refers to the reason why merchandise in the decline stage of a fashion declines in popularity and is ultimately discarded by consumers. The term excess the product life. means overdone, too much or too many, or social saturation. For example, when marketers first introduce skirts above the knee, they are short, but not excessively short. As time pro- (Pearson Education/PHCollege) gresses, they gradually get shorter. As the fashion gains pop- Sales promotion cannot change ularity, the style becomes more extreme—in this case, shorter the decline in popularity of a fashion. and shorter, until it is excessively short and the fashion ends due to indecent exposure. Marketers introduce the slightly lower hemlines near the end of the miniskirt life cycle. These skirts gain in popularity as the mi- cromini wanes in popularity. A second example of eventual excess or overdone fashion is the introduction of embroidery or ornamentation on clothing. The fashion begins with just a little embroidery or ornamentation on an item. As time passes, the designs become increasingly decorated, and the excessive embroidery or ornamentation becomes the focal point of the garment. The excessive applied design gets tiresome, so consumers discard the fashion in favor of a new look— no embroidery and a cleaner, less ornamented look. A third interpretation of this principle is the notion that when everyone that wants a particular fashion has it, then the market is saturated—that is, an excessive number of people are wearing the fashion. Sproles (1981a, p. 122) refers to this as social saturation. Therefore, the fashion leaders discard the fashion in favor of a newer and more exclusive fashion. All three examples, although slightly different, exemplify the notion of excess. Fashions die when they become excessively short, long, wide, narrow, embellished, plain, and excessively adopted. Figure 6.2 The micro miniskirt Fashion Is a Form of Social Imitation represents a hemline at the highest A style requires group acceptance to become a fashion. According to fashion essayist Georg possible point. Simmel (1904), fashion succeeds when followers adopt a style that they have seen others (John Davis ©Dorling Kindersley) fashion principles, perspectives, and theories 105 M06_STAL4104_01_SE_CH06.QXD 5/20/10 10:36 AM Page 106 adopt. If one person wears a particular style, such as palazzo (very wide-legged pants), it is still only a style until others in that group adopt that same style. A fashion begins when the fashion leader’s style is copied. If imitation does not occur, the style remains a personal style but is not called a fashion. A person with his or her own sense of style may or may not be in fashion (although this is usually meant as a compliment). Astute marketers often feature advertising head- lines promoting the store’s fashion merchandise and its ability to fulfill the target customer’s own personal sense of style. Marketers choose this emotional appeal because it seems more indi- vidualistic and is less blatantly a social imitation. Fashion Is Cyclical Fashions tend to run in cycles. Consumers gradually popularize a style and continue to wear the fashion for a time, ranging from months to years. As a fashion declines in popularity and slips into obsolescence, it remains in hibernation, until a new generation of consumers or some other renewed interest brings it back into focus. Marketers may not be able to predict the ex- act date a style or trend will become popular, but a close analysis of previous fashions will give some indication of the likelihood of popularity. Marketers interpret sales data to analyze and predict fashion life cycles. (A significant discussion of the fashion life cycle is presented in Chapter 8.) The life cycle includes the length of time the style lies dormant before becoming fashion- Figure 6.3 Advertisements able again. This period of dormancy may last for only a few years, or it may last for decades. appeal to a person’s sense of style. For example, tie-dyed T-shirts become fashionable every few years, and retailers regularly of- (PhotoEdit Inc.) fer tie-dye looks in the stores. The target market of elementary school-aged children explains the regular recurrences of tie-dyed fashions. By introducing the fashion every four to six years, marketers can reach a new school-aged consumer that appreciates the bright colors and nov- elty of tie-dyed T-shirts. Figure 6.4 Tie-dyed T-shirts recur in popularity every few years. (Steve Shott ©Dorling Kindersley) 106 chapter six M06_STAL4104_01_SE_CH06.QXD 5/20/10 10:36 AM Page 107 Fashion Change Is Evolutionary; It Is Rarely Revolutionary Economically speaking, consumers simply cannot afford to completely change their wardrobes each season. From a psychological standpoint, although consumers like change each season, they do not like too much change. They prefer something new and slightly different from last seasons’ fashions, but not radically different. The gradual change is likened to a slow pendulum swinging. The pendulum represents the changing fashion as it moves toward one direction. When it moves as far as it can to one side, it represents the fashion as an extreme. When this happens, the fashion changes move back toward the middle or a more moderate appear- ance. As the pendulum swings toward the opposite side, it represents a movement toward a different extreme. Each point on the pendulum swing continuum represents a fashion that is similar to the fashion at the points on either side. Hemline lengths or waistband locations exemplify how fashions evolve over time. For example, skirt hemlines gradually shorten, and pant waistbands gradually become lower each season. Once the fashion reaches the maximum skimpiness, it begins to reverse directions, just like the pendulum analogy. Waistbands rise a little higher the next season and even higher the second year, continuing to rise until they rise above the waist, like a Hollywood or high-waist style. Designers may attempt to introduce a high-waist pant immediately following the fashion of a hipster pant, but consumers may consider this to be too radical of a change—too revolutionary—to select for their wardrobe. Often only a limited group of fashion innovators will be interested in such a radical style difference; fashion followers need time to make the adjustment. Even popular colors in fashion tend to evolve from season to season. The Pantone Color Sys- tem showed spring 2009 colors that were similar variations of the popular colors for the fall 2008 season. According to a Women’s Wear Dailyreport, the designers’ top choices of palace blue and lavender colors for 2009 were continuations of blue iris and royal lilac colors from the preceding season (Hall, C., 2008, Sept. 4). Although the popular color names changed from season to season, the actual colors exhibit only slight modifications from season to season. After a few seasons of popular purple-blue colors, the fashion will begin to move toward the green-blue colors of the spectrum. Figure 6.5 Hip-hugger style jeans represent a waistline at the lowest possible point. (AP Wide World Photos) fashion principles, perspectives, and theories 107 M06_STAL4104_01_SE_CH06.QXD 5/20/10 10:36 AM Page 108 the Business The First Lady of FASHION Michelle Obama’s pragmatic fashion image seems perfectly suited to the tough economic times. She is well-known for her aisle-crossing or high-low dressing, including mixing pieces from J. Crew or White House/Black Market with her favorite American designers, such as Narcisco Rodriguez and Jason Wu. First ladies of the United States have always been encouraged—although some say expected—to wear all American labels. Both the president and first lady act as ambassadors of the United States in every way, including supporting the domestic fashion industry. American designers appreciate the first lady’s support, especially in difficult economic times. This concept dates back to the very first First Lady of the United States. Martha Washington chose to wear domestic homespun fashions rather than British fashions in the Post-Revolutionary times. Mrs. Washington understood the importance of conveying a message through clothing. She projected an image of an elegant public figure who was decidedly republican. In the early 1930s, First Lady Lou Hoover bolstered the U.S. cotton industry by posing for photographs in cotton apparel. First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy was reported to be an ardent supporter of the domestic fashion industry in the early 1960s. However, one source noted that Mrs. Kennedy was known to circumvent this expectation and occasionally purchase foreign labels. On October 24, 1988, an article in Time Magazine criticized First Lady Nancy Reagan for borrowing elegant clothing from U.S. designers. In response, the board of directors of the Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) published a one-page advertisement in Women’s Wear Dailyshowing their support for this practice. The notice stated that borrowing fashions was not a new practice and was actually quite beneficial to the fashion industry (CFDA advertisement, 1988, Oct. 20). SOURCES: Bryan, H. (2002). Martha Washington: First Lady of Liberty. NY: Wiley. Council of Fashion Designers of America. (1988, Oct. 20). Advertisement in Women’s Wear Daily,156(76), 3. Feinberg, B.S. (1998). America’s First Ladies: Changing Expectations. NY: Franklin Watts. Magnuson, E. (1988, Oct. 24). Why Mrs. Reagan still looks like a million. Time, 132(17), 29–30. Michelle Obama: A woman of substance. (2009, Jan. 19). Women’s Wear Daily Online. Retrieved March 6, 2009, from www.wwd.com Moore, Booth. (2009, Jan 18). Dressing Up D.C.; A National Pasttime. Los Angeles Times, Part P, p. 4. In 1931, essayist Edward Sapir used the term historical continuityto explain this evolutionary principle of fashion. In 1969 Herbert Blumer elaborated on the term. Historical continuity refers to the notion that new fashions evolve from the most recent fashions. They are most val- ued if the fashions only slightly vary from the previous mode. Sapir explained that current fashions should fit into a sequential pattern that includes both the recent past fashions and the fashions yet to come. This means that the most current fashion is really just a derivative of the past fashion. Sapir explained the evolution of fashion, “Fashion is emphatically a historical concept. A specific fashion is utterly unintelligible if lifted out of its place in a sequence of forms” (Sapir in Spro1es, 1981b, p. 24). Fashion Is a Reflection of the Way of Life Fashion recurs, but never in exactly the same way, because each era has its own unique characteristics. Retrospectively, a student can look at the clothing from a previous decade, and it seems perfectly appropriate for its time. If a designer attempted to exactly re-create the same clothing for contemporary times, the result would probably be unsuccessful because of the dif- 108 chapter six M06_STAL4104_01_SE_CH06.QXD 5/20/10 10:36 AM Page 109 fering environmental conditions between the eras. Successful fashion designers, product de- Innovators velopers, and marketers learn to interpret the cultural signals and create fashions that are exclusive to the current era and not a duplication of the bygone eras. Fashion is an embodiment of the zeitgeist and reflects the environmental factors that shapeaculture’scurrentvaluesandbeliefs.Studentsoffashioncanidentifyafashionmixof colors,prints,fabrics,details,andstylesasbelongingtoaspecificera.Evenifoneortwoof thefashionmixvariables,suchasstyleandprint,areline-for-linecopiesofastyleandprint Followers fromapreviousdecade,theothervariablesinthemixwillbemorerepresentativeofcontem- Figure 6.6 The trickle-down porarylife. theory of fashion adoption. Fashion Theories and Theorists Who starts a fashion, and how does it gain widespread acceptance? Fashion innovators start fashions, and fashion followers soon adopt similar looks. Chapter 8 addresses the various adopter categories in detail, but for now, note that fashion innovators start fashions, and fashion followerspursue the fashion. The traditional fashion diffusion theories and newer theories on the movement of fashion explain the fashion innovation and adoption processes. These are the trickle-down theory, trickle-up theory, trickle across theory, geo- graphic theory, fashion systems theory, zeitgeist theory, and populist model. Each addresses the origin of the fashion and the process of dissemination to the masses. Students can usually identify fashions that represent the various creation and diffusion theories. Trickle-Down Theory Prior to mass production, elite members of society introduced most fashions, and eventually the general population adopted the fashions. The upper class of society expended significant amounts of money on apparel and accessories to be fashionable. The trickle-down theory or the class differentiation theory (Blumer, H., 1969) explains that the wealthiest persons (leisure class) or the most public persons, such as political figures and celebrities, introduce the latest style as a means of class differentiation. Then, the consumers of more modest means imitate the style of the wealthy in an attempt to reduce the visible differentiation between the classes. This continual chase and flightnotion was described by McCracken (1988) when he explained that the lower class chases or imitates the fashions of the upper class and the upper class differenti- ates or flies toward a newer fashion. In 1904 in his Fashionessay, sociologist Georg Simmel explained that fashion originated with the upper class members and the lower classes copied their style. Thorstein Veblen also advocated this adoption process in his 1899 book, Theory of the Leisure Class. This book has been reprinted numerous times since it was originally written. Researchers consider both of these essays to be important historical contributions Figure 6.7 Elegantly attired upper-class consumers. to the study of fashion movement. (Slater King ©Dorling Kindersley) fashion principles, perspectives, and theories 109 M06_STAL4104_01_SE_CH06.QXD 5/20/10 10:36 AM Page 110 Georg Simmel In 1904, Georg Simmel wrote a philosophical essay entitled “Fashion.” In his essay, he explained that a style requires group acceptance before it can become a fashion. A fashion leader may introduce the newest style, but unless the fashion followers also adopt the style, it cannot be called a fashion. This often-quoted definition of the term fashion appears in his essay: “Fashion is a form of imitation” (p. 130). Simmel suggested that the success of fashion depends on social imitation or conformity to a particular style of dressing. He further explained that when people follow a fashion, they are not alone in their actions; they are only following what others have already adopted. Thus, fashion becomes a socially unifying force. Fashion allows people to “fit in” to whatever reference group they aspire, but by doing so, the fashion followers also lose some of their identity. The duality of fashion is that humans want to wear clothing that allows them to be a part of a group and fit in, yet they also desire self-expression or to stand out from the crowd. The clothing behaviors of most junior high and high school students Figure 6.8 Teenagers value the clearly illustrate this concept. Adolescents value the importance of dressing to the precise stan- importance of clothing as a dards of their group of friends. Social conformity at this age can be so powerful that to dress communication tool and reference outside the group norm results in ridicule. The desire to forgo personal individualism for group group membership. conformity is a sacrifice willingly made by many of the fashion followers. (Merrill Education) The fashion leaders, desiring to look different from the followers, soon abandon the current fashion in favor of a newer look. The fashion followers, aspiring to look like the fashion leaders, soon discard the fashion, so they can imitate the more current looks of the leaders. Consequently, this newer look becomes popular, and the cycle repeats itself. Thorstein Veblen Economist Thorstein Veblen first wrote Theory of the Leisure Classin 1899. Veblen was the premier authority when he included his lengthy and eloquent essay entitled “Dress as an expression of the pecuniary culture” (pecuniarymeaning having to do with wealth). In many respects, it has some currency to modern fashion adoption, although at the time it was written, women had not even gained the right to vote. Veblen’s important premises include: 1. Fashion is a constant social class struggle, wherein the wealthy attempt to set them- selves apart from the middle class by adopting fashions not currently worn by those of lesser stations in life. 2. Fashion is an outward expression of a person’s wealth (conspicuous consumption). 3. Fashion is a way to demonstrate that a person owns such great wealth that it is not necessary to engage in physical labor (conspicuous leisure). 4. The introduction of newer and more desirable fashions deliberately brings about the demise of the old fashion (artificial obsolescence). A serious study of fashion brings understanding of the meaning of these challenging words and concepts. Conspicuous consumptionis the desire to select fashion expendi- tures that look expensive. Veblen noted that the middle class is quick to adopt the look, so the upper-class consumers react to this problem by continuously changing their styles. Con- sumers of lesser means find it difficult and costly to follow suit. Fashion requires the expen- diture of money to remain in fashion, so it becomes an economic issue. Conspicuous Figure 6.9 Paris Hilton leisureis a social communication tool. The affluent person appears idle and without work, exemplifies conspicuous leisure. yet he or she can somehow afford to enjoy leisure time and seems to have the means to do (Getty Images, Inc.) so (think of heiress Paris Hilton). 110 chapter six M06_STAL4104_01_SE_CH06.QXD 5/20/10 10:36 AM Page 111 Figure 6.10 England’s Princess Diana’s wedding dress created a widespread fashion in bridal wear. (Getty Images) Artificialobsolescencereferstothedemiseofaperfectlyservice- ableiteminfavorofaneweronethatseemsmoreattractivethanitspred- ecessor.Thenewerstylemightbeadifferentcolor,style,and/ormaterial. Forexample,ifpointedtoesonshoeshavebeenpopularforsometime, consumersgrowtiredofthefashion,andsoadesignerintroducesashoe withroundedtoes.Thenewerstyleisnowdesired,andtoweartheolder style is considered unfashionable. Some argue that artificial obsolescence encourages wastefulness, and this is true. Others could also ar- guethattheintroductionofnewerfashionsincreasessalesandimproves business.Artificialobsolescenceisimportantfortheeconomyanddiffi- cultfortheenvironment.Thenotionofsustainability,suchasdiscussed inthebookCradletoCradle(McDonoughandBraungart,2002),coun- tersthewastefulnessofartificialobsolescenceandencouragessustain- abledesignandproductioninallindustries.Yet,thefashionindustryhas workedtowardshorteningthelifecycleoffashions,especiallyinthefast- fashionindustry.Thesuccessfulfast-fashionretailerZara,ownedbyIndi- tex Group in Spain, has approximately fourteen seasons per year, as opposedtothetraditionalfourorfivebymoremainstreamfashionretail- ers.Thisisevidencethatfasttrendsandartificialobsolescenceareim- portantconceptsinmarketingfashions. Fast-fashion retailers may exemplify the accelerated trickle-down adoption process. Line-for-line copying and infringing on in- Fashion allows for self-expression tellectual property rights of high fashion designers are ways or individuality. that fast-fashion retailers, such as Zara, H&M, Mango, and Sandwich, produce apparel and accessory fashions. These duplicated looks emulate the expensive fashions afforded by the wealthier clients of designers. Historic examples of the trickle-down fashion adoption process include England’s royal wedding in 1981 and the velour track suit associated with Jennifer Lopez in 2002. When prepa- rations were made for the wedding between England’s Princess Diana and Prince Charles, the palace officials kept Lady Diana Spencer’s wedding gown design a closely guarded secret until the day of the event. Within just a few hours after the televised wedding, dressmaker shops across the country were featuring knockoffs of the royal princess’s wedding gown designed by Elizabeth Emanuel. This style continued to be a major fashion influence on popular bridal wear for the next season. Celebrity fashion innovators also exemplify the trickle-down theory. Singer/actress Jennifer Lopez was the leader of the widespread velour tracksuit trend that was going strong by 2003. Although the fashion apparel company Juicy Couture introduced the velour knit pants and zip-up hoodie jacket, Lopez was so enamored with it that she wore it in a video and created her own tracksuit for her J. Lo line in 2002. Figure 6.11 Jennifer Lopez in a velour track suit she popularized in 2002. (www.theage.com) fashion principles, perspectives, and theories 111