FALSE ALARM! THE MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT OF POLITICAL CYNICISM AND THE ...

341 Pages·2015·2.51 MB·English

by  Rijkhoff, Sanne

FALSE ALARM! THE MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT OF POLITICAL CYNICISM

AND THE CONSEQUENCES FOR POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

By

SUSANNA AFRA MARIA RIJKHOFF

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY
School of Politics, Philosophy and Public Affairs

AUGUST 2015

© Copyright by SUSANNA AFRA MARIA RIJKHOFF, 2015
All Rights Reserved
© Copyright by SUSANNA AFRA MARIA RIJKHOFF, 2015
All Rights Reserved
To the Faculty of Washington State University:

The members of the Committee appointed to examine the dissertation of
SUSANNA AFRA MARIA RIJKHOFF find it satisfactory and recommend that it be
accepted.

______________________________________
Travis N. Ridout, Ph.D., Chair

______________________________________
Martha L. Cottam, Ph.D.

______________________________________
Amy G. Mazur, Ph.D.

______________________________________
Craig D. Parks, Ph.D.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My journey through higher education has always been a lonely one. Finishing, elementary
school I was the only one out of thirteen to pursue Gymnasium level in high school. After that, out
of my graduation class of approximately ninety students, I was the only one to move to Leiden to
study political science. In Leiden, upon completion of my masters in political science, I went on
again by myself to receive a second masters in social psychology. Not surprisingly, I moved to the
USA by myself to pursue a doctorate in political psychology. However, I did not expect to find out
upon arrival, that it was just me starting at Washington State University in a cohort of one.
Despite this lonely route, I have never been truly alone throughout all these years and I have
received a lot support and encouragement from family, friends and mentors. When I felt defeated
and wanted to give up, they told me to go on and push through. For this, I want to express my
gratitude and my sincere appreciation.
First, I wish to thank my dissertation committee for they have been available for my many
questions and they have been dedicated to a successful completion of my degree. Specifically my
chair, Dr. Travis Ridout, has been the one I could always count on. Throughout my graduate years
at WSU, he came to know me very well and knew how to deal with my uncertainties and hesitations.
His trust in me, shown through his advice and guidance not only strengthened my scholarship but
also helped me grow personally. Dr. Amy Mazur also contributed in many ways to my graduate
career and I thank her for her unbounded enthusiasm and involvement in my many projects. Most
of which were not necessarily in line with her research interests but she always provided motivation
and support for me. Similarly, I thank Dr. Martha Cottam. Her knowledge of political psychology
is something that I greatly admire and I try to carry on this passion by introducing students to the
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field. Last but definitely not least, I thank Dr. Craig Parks. He always managed to lift my spirits and
his perspective and input in my research has been invaluable. I am also very appreciative of
everybody at the Division of Governmental Studies and Services for all the opportunities they have
offered me.
I am especially grateful to my dear friends with whom I shared much joy and laughter but
also numerous venting sessions usually accompanied by a good glass of wine. Particularly four
incredible women have been a great support for me. First my oldest and best friend Annemarie
Jong who despite the distance never gave up on us, as our friendship can never be broken.
Wherever we are, we can always count on each other. Marcella Oonk, my fellow “Dutchie” in these
idiotic United States, she made me hold on to my Orange roots and together we found a way to
cope with our everyday struggles with American culture. Then Pip Sherwood and Rose Keller, my
dear friends in Pullman, both of them have shown me that we can overcome anything as long as we
keep an eye on the goal and have loving friends we can rely on.
Lastly, I want to thank my papa and mama, and my sister Sabina. By letting me go, they
have given me the most precious gift, my individuality. It is incredibly difficult to be missing them
and to be so far away, but I know I can trust in their unconditional support and love for me and
each other. They helped me grow to the person I am today and for that I am eternally grateful.
Finally, I want to acknowledge my wonderful partner Christopher Campbell. The love that
he gives me, the trust that he has in me, and his everlasting optimism helped me through various
difficult moments but also made the celebrations of our accomplishments all the more meaningful.
I am so grateful that I met Chris, that we share our passion for research and for the beautiful nature
we so enjoy. I thank him, purely for being in my life but above all, for being the one who made me
feel at home again.
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FALSE ALARM! THE MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT OF POLITICAL CYNICISM

AND THE CONSEQUENCES FOR POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

Abstract

by Susanna Afra Maria Rijkhoff, Ph.D.
Washington State University
August 2015

Chair: Travis N. Ridout

The impact of political cynicism on political participation is an ongoing concern of scholars
who study political behavior. While political cynicism is often assumed to reduce people’s
involvement in politics, others suggest that cynicism may actually increase electoral support for
ideologically extreme political parties. I argue that this disagreement is caused by the lack of a
proper definition and measurement of political cynicism.
This dissertation introduces a new approach to studying the relationship between cynicism
and participation, starting with a comprehensive definition, which distinguishes cynicism from other
attitudes such as distrust, social or horizontal cynicism and political efficacy. I define political
cynicism as an enduring attitude towards politics based on the belief that the political object of
cynicism (politicians, political institutions, and the political system as a whole) is untrustworthy,
immoral, dishonest, incompetent, self-interested and out of touch with citizens.
Additionally, using original data collected through online surveys, I construct a better
instrument to identify political cynicism among citizens, focusing on the six dimensions I identified.
Structural equation modeling confirms the reliability of the scale and shows that political cynicism is
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related to, but distinct from political distrust, political efficacy and social trust. Citizens who are
cynical towards politics distinguish between human nature and political nature.
Furthermore, I argue that the supposed negative link between cynicism and participation is
overstated as I find that the story is much more complicated than it is usually made out to be.
Additionally, I find that political cynicism and political distrust have different consequences for
political participation. By and large, cynicism and participation are unrelated. When there is a
relationship between political cynicism and political participation, it is a positive one. These findings
are consistent in several samples and for a variety of types of participation.
Consequently, this dissertation shows a citizenry that, although politically cynical to a certain
degree, is at the same time not deterred from being politically active. The fretting and hand wringing
therefore has to stop. It was false alarm, as political cynicism is not the problem it is made out to be
for political participation.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................................ v
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................................... xiii
PART ONE - THEORY ................................................................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER TWO: OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................................... 14
POLITICAL CYNICISM ...................................................................................................................... 14
RELATED CONCEPTS....................................................................................................................... 25
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION ......................................................................................................... 29
PART TWO – RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND METHODOLOGY .............................................. 48
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES ...................................... 49
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODS ..................................................................................... 62
PART THREE - RESULTS .......................................................................................................................... 72
CHAPTER FIVE: REDEFINING POLITICAL CYNICISM .......................................................... 73
STUDY ONE: ACADEMIC DEFINITIONS ................................................................................. 74
STUDY TWO: SURVEY RESPONDENTS’ DEFINITIONS ..................................................... 83
CHAPTER SIX: DIMENSIONS OF CYNICISM ............................................................................ 102
STUDY ONE: SIX DIMENSIONS ................................................................................................ 109
STUDY TWO: SCALE DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................... 124
STUDY THREE: POLITICAL CYNICISM AND OTHER CONCEPTS ............................. 135
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CHAPTER SEVEN: CYNICISM AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION .................................. 148
STUDY ONE: PILOT STUDY ........................................................................................................ 150
STUDY TWO: MAIN STUDY ......................................................................................................... 164
PART FOUR - CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 209
CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS, LIMITATIONS AND
FUTURE RESEARCH ..................................................................................... 210
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................... 210
IMPLICATIONS ................................................................................................................................. 219
LIMITATIONS .................................................................................................................................... 221
FUTURE RESEARCH ....................................................................................................................... 223
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................. 227
APPENDIX I: DUTCH SUMMARY....................................................................................................... 240
APPENDIX II: CYNICISM ITEMS ........................................................................................................ 245
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CHAPTER SIX ......................................................................... 245
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CHAPTER SEVEN ................................................................. 249
APPENDIX III: SURVEYS ....................................................................................................................... 289
SURVEY ONE: TWO INDEPENDENT SAMPLES ..................................................................... 289
SURVEY TWO: PILOT STUDY ......................................................................................................... 302
SURVEY THREE: FOUR INDEPENDENT SAMPLES .............................................................. 311
AMERICAN NATIONAL ELECTION STUDIES ......................................................................... 323

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 5.1 Overview of Literature on Political Cynicism between 1961 – 2012 ............................... 78
TABLE 5.2 Percentages of Valence of Responses to Open Ended Questionnaire ............................ 86
TABLE 5.3 Percentages of Target Mentioned to Open Ended Questionnaire ................................... 88
TABLE 5.4 Prominent Features Mentioned in Definitions of Political Cynicism .............................. 92

TABLE 6.1 Structure Matrix EFA with All 54 Items to Measure Dimensions of Cynicism ........... 112
TABLE 6.2 Latent Factor Correlation Matrix ......................................................................................... 121
TABLE 6.3: Latent Factor Correlation Matrix 5 Dimensions of Political Cynicism ........................ 121
TABLE 6.4: Structure Matrix Exploratory Factor Analysis of 37 Cynicism Items ........................... 126
TABLE 6.5: Latent Factor Correlation Matrix – Political Cynicism – Politicians ............................. 129
TABLE 6.6: Factor Loadings for Cynicism towards Politicians ........................................................... 130
TABLE 6.7: Factor Loadings for Cynicism towards Political Institutions ......................................... 132
TABLE 6.8: Latent Factor Correlation Matrix – Political Cynicism – Political System ................... 133
TABLE 6.9: Factor Loadings for Cynicism towards the Political System .......................................... 134
TABLE 6.10: Structure Matrix Exploratory Factor Analysis Political Cynicism and
Related Concepts ................................................................................................................ 140
TABLE 6.11: Fit Indices for CFA Solutions –Political Cynicism and Related Concepts ................ 143
TABLE 6.12: Correlations between Scales Based on EFA ................................................................... 143
TABLE 6.13: Correlations between Scales Based on CFA ................................................................... 144
TABLE 6.14: Fit Indices for CFA Solutions –Political Cynicism and Political Distrust .................. 144

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