Factors Influencing the Adoption of Soil and Water Conservation Technologies

100 Pages·2015·1.66 MB·English

by  Seth M. Kammer

Factors Influencing the Adoption of Soil and Water Conservation Technologies: a case study
of two farming communities in rural Ethiopia

Seth Kammer

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF FOREST RESOURCES
University of Washington
December 2014

Program Authorized to Offer Degree:
School of Environmental and Forest Sciences
College of the Environment
Abstract
The majority of Ethiopians depend on agriculture for their livelihood. However, in many
areas within the country, particularly where hillsides have been cultivated, land productivity is
threatened by the effects of erosion and subsequent water and soil nutrient loss. There are
numerous agricultural practices that Ethiopian farmers can use to reduce the damaging effects
associated with erosion and water loss as it relates to hillside farming. However, despite the
prospect of land degradation, not every farmer cultivating on unleveled ground will practice soil
and water conservation (SWC) technologies.
This case study explores factors involved with the adoption of SWC technologies within
the study areas of Magersa and Konso. Data were collected through interviews and participant
observation. A mixed methods approach was used for data analyses. Results suggest that the
practice of SWC technologies within the study areas of Magersa and Konso are significantly
influenced by the awareness of SWC technologies and assistance with agricultural practices.
Organizations with the objective of increasing the practice of SWC technologies within the
communities of Magersa and Konso through heightening awareness or increasing cooperative
work efforts are encouraged to adopt one or more of the following strategies: (1) use opinion
leaders within the community to promote SWC technologies, (2) conduct training events to
qualify community members as trainers of SWC technologies, (3) establish and maintain
demonstration areas for SWC technologies, (4) encourage information and experience exchange
between farmers who have extensive experience with SWC technologies and farmers who have
relatively few experiences with SWC technologies, (5) promote cooperative work strategies
among farmers who lack resources to perform SWC technologies, and (6) adapt SWC
technologies to fit the needs and resource limitations of the farmers.

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Contents
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1. ETHIOPIA BACKGORUND ...................................................................................................................... 3
Geography & Climate........................................................................................................................... 5
Flora & Fauna ...................................................................................................................................... 8
History ................................................................................................................................................. 9
Economy & Resources ....................................................................................................................... 13
Land Tenure & Agriculture ................................................................................................................. 14
2. EROSION & WATER LOSS ................................................................................................................... 18
Soil & Water Conservation ................................................................................................................. 21
3. ADOPTION AND DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS ................................................................................... 27
Innovations ....................................................................................................................................... 28
Communication Channels .................................................................................................................. 29
Time and Innovativeness ................................................................................................................... 29
Social Systems ................................................................................................................................... 31
Understanding the Innovative-Decision Process ................................................................................ 31
4. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................. 33
Sibboo & Magersa (cid:884) Bure Woreda ..................................................................................................... 34
Karat Town and Surrounding Communities (cid:884) Konso Special Woreda .................................................. 36
Data Collection .................................................................................................................................. 39
Soil & Water Conservation Technologies............................................................................................ 41
5. DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................................. 44
6. RESULTS & DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................... 52
Awareness & Practice of SWC Technologies ....................................................................................... 52
Needs & Awareness ........................................................................................................................... 55
Communication Channels & Awareness ............................................................................................. 57
Needs & Practice of SWC Technologies .............................................................................................. 62
Help Received & Practice of SWC Technologies .................................................................................. 63
Land Area Managed & Practice of SWC Technologies......................................................................... 65
Other Factors Influencing the Adoption & Practice of SWC Technologies ........................................... 67
Limitations of Research & Researcher Bias ......................................................................................... 68

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7. CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 69
Increase Exposure of SWC Technologies & Maximize Outreach.......................................................... 69
Cooperative Farming Groups ............................................................................................................. 72
Adapting SWC Technologies to Site .................................................................................................... 73
Further Research ............................................................................................................................... 74
References ............................................................................................................................................ 76
Appendix A: Interview Guide ................................................................................................................. 83
Appendix B: Summary of Data Fields Used for Statistical Analysis in SAS ................................................ 86
Appendix C: Results from Statistical Analyses ........................................................................................ 89

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List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Political boundaries of Ethiopia (modified by author from Burron 2002) ................................ 3
Figure 1.2 Map of Ethiopia depicting regions and administrative cities (Golbez 2006) ............................. 4
Figure 1.3: (cid:28)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:393)(cid:349)(cid:258)(cid:859)(cid:400) cultural diversity at a glance by region: left to right - top: Afar, Harar, Gambela;
middle: Oromiya, SNNPR, Amhara; bottom: Tigray, Benishangul-Gumuz, Somali (photo credit: Wiese;
Huet; Kwekudee; Lafforgue; Furlan; OGS; Zandbergen, Santos; UNHCR) .................................................. 5
Figure 1.4: Topography of Ethiopia (Sadalmelik 2007) ............................................................................. 6
Figure 1.5: Annual precipitation in Ethiopia (adapted by author from UN-OCHA 2006) ............................ 7
Figure 1.6: Endemic flora and fauna of Ethiopia. From top left (clockwise) Ethiopian wolf (Canis
simensis), mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni), Gelada baboon (Theropithecus gelada), birbira
(cid:894)(cid:68)(cid:349)(cid:367)(cid:367)(cid:286)(cid:410)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:258)(cid:3)(cid:296)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:396)(cid:437)(cid:336)(cid:349)(cid:374)(cid:286)(cid:258)(cid:895)(cid:853)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:271)(cid:455)(cid:400)(cid:400)(cid:349)(cid:374)(cid:349)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:258)(cid:410)(cid:271)(cid:349)(cid:396)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:894)(cid:87)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:258)(cid:393)(cid:346)(cid:258)(cid:400)(cid:373)(cid:258)(cid:3)(cid:336)(cid:258)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:374)(cid:349)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:895)(cid:853)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:374)(cid:272)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:437)(cid:400)(cid:393)(cid:381)(cid:367)(cid:349)(cid:859)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:437)raco (Turaco ruspolii)
(photo credit: R. Jackrel; BFS; B. Shuchuck; S. Rooke; L. Peterson; Bekele-Tesemma) ............................... 8
Figure 1.7: Kingdom of Aksum, 4th - 7th centuries (Phillipson 2005) ........................................................ 10
Figure 1.8: Ethiopia, 19th century (Phillipson 2005) ................................................................................ 10
Figure 1.9: Ploughing field by oxen (photo credit: TFTFa) ....................................................................... 16
Figure 2.1: Erosion and siltation threaten this river in Ethiopia (photo credit: S. Kammer) ..................... 18
Figure 2.2: Agriculture extension worker looks over farmland expansion on erosion prone hillsides in
Ethiopia (photo credit: TFTFb) ............................................................................................................... 20
Figure 2.3: Hillside farming near Lake Wenchi, Ethiopia (photo credit: S. Kammer) ................................ 20
Figure 2.4: Terracing in Konso, Ethiopia (photo credit: S. Kammer) ........................................................ 22
Figure 2.5: Construction of stone check dams in Konso, Ethiopia (photo credit: S. Kammer) .................. 23
Figure 2.6: A row of pigeon pea (Cajunus cajun) will support this soil bund in Wolkite, Ethiopia (photo
credit: TFTFc) ......................................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 3.1: Categories of individuals related to innovativeness, the relative speed of innovation
adoption. Inn(cid:381)(cid:448)(cid:258)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:448)(cid:286)(cid:374)(cid:286)(cid:400)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:349)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:272)(cid:258)(cid:410)(cid:286)(cid:336)(cid:381)(cid:396)(cid:349)(cid:460)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:271)(cid:258)(cid:400)(cid:286)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:3)(cid:400)(cid:410)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:282)(cid:258)(cid:396)(cid:282)(cid:3)(cid:282)(cid:286)(cid:448)(cid:349)(cid:258)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:894)(cid:400)(cid:282)(cid:895)(cid:3)(cid:296)(cid:396)(cid:381)(cid:373)(cid:3)(cid:373)(cid:286)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:373)(cid:286)(cid:3)(cid:381)(cid:296)(cid:3)(cid:258)(cid:282)(cid:381)(cid:393)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:3)
(cid:894)(cid:454)(cid:528)(cid:895)(cid:3)(cid:449)(cid:349)(cid:410)(cid:346)(cid:349)(cid:374)(cid:3)(cid:258)(cid:374)(cid:3)(cid:349)(cid:374)(cid:374)(cid:381)(cid:448)(cid:258)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:859)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:410)(cid:381)(cid:410)(cid:258)(cid:367)(cid:3)(cid:258)(cid:282)(cid:381)(cid:393)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:374)(cid:336)(cid:3)(cid:393)(cid:381)(cid:393)(cid:437)(cid:367)(cid:258)(cid:410)(cid:349)(cid:381)(cid:374)(cid:856)(cid:3)(cid:894)(cid:90)(cid:381)(cid:336)(cid:286)(cid:396)(cid:400)(cid:3)(cid:1006)(cid:1004)(cid:1004)(cid:1007)(cid:895) ...................................................... 30
Figure 3.2: The innovation-decision process (Rogers 2003) .................................................................... 32
Figure 4.1: Bure Woreda and Konso Special Woreda, Ethiopia (adapted from Golbez 2006) .................. 33
Figure 4.2: The town of Sibboo, Bure Woreda (photo credit: S. Kammer) .............................................. 35
Figure 4.3: Rainy season within Magersa (photo credit: S. Kammer) ...................................................... 35
Figure 4.4: Landscape of Magersa at the start of the dry season (photo credit: S. Kammer) ................... 35
Figure 4.5: A village within Konso, a UNESCO world heritage site (photo credit: Y. Beyene) ................... 38
Figure 4.6: Traditional houses and terracing within Konso (photo credit: V. Brown)............................... 38
Figure 4.7: Town of Karat, capital of Konso (photo credit: B. Gagnon).................................................... 38
Figure 4.8: Trenches & berms (photo credit: TFTFd) .............................................................................. 41
Figure 4.9: Successive check dams slow water and trap sediment along this roadside during the rainy
season (photo credit: TFTFe) ................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 4.10: Crop residuals are left within the fields, placed along the ridge of soil bowl structures (photo
credit: S. Kammer) ................................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 4.11: A water reservoir made from concrete and tarpaulin (photo credit: S. Kammer) ................ 43
Figure 4.12: Vetiver grass (Chrysopogon zizanioides) helps stabilize this unleveled farm land (photo
credit: A. McCausland) .......................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 4.13: Example of stone terracing within Konso (photo credit: S. Kammer) .................................. 44
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Figure 5.1: Example of first cycle coding for one interview response ..................................................... 47
Figure 5.2: Creation of a categorical hierarchy from codes to theory (adapted from Saldaña 2013) ....... 49
Figure 6.1: Percent of respondents aware of specific technologies by study area .................................. 53
Figure 6.2: Percent of respondents practicing specific technologies within study areas ......................... 54
Figure 6.3: Starting with codes and developing categories, themes, and theories with respect to the
interests of respondents (adapted from Saldaña 2013).......................................................................... 56
Figure 6.4: Sources for advisement on agricultural techniques identified by Konso respondents .......... 58
Figure 6.5: Sources for advisement on agricultural techniques identified by Magersa respondents ....... 59
Figure 6.6: Sources for assistance with agricultural activities reported by Magersa respondents ........... 64
Figure 6.7: Sources for assistance with agricultural activities reported by Konso respondents ............... 64

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List of Tables
Table 5.1: Example of codes used during deductive and inductive data analyses .................................... 46

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Acknowledgements

Thanks to Ivan Eastin, Stanley Asah, Patrick Tobin, and Miku Lenentine for their support
and guidance throughout the process of conducting this case study. Thanks also to my co-
workers from Trees for the Future, Gabriel Buttram and Derese Kochena, without which I would
not have had so many opportunities to participate in tree planting and agroforestry events within
Ethiopia. Thanks to Moti Kenu, Masgabu Motuma, and again for Derese for their patience with
translating, Kifyalow Admasu for his dedication within the agriculture extension service, and for
Kifle Bogale, who first introduced me to the people of Sibboo and Magersa. Lastly, I want to
give a big thanks to the people of Sibboo, Magersa, and Konso for their generous hospitality
during my stay in Ethiopia.

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INTRODUCTION

The majority of Ethiopians depend on agriculture for their livelihood. However, in many
areas within the country, particularly where hillsides have been cultivated, land productivity is
threatened by the effects of erosion and subsequent water and soil nutrient loss. Farmers who
lack the resources to amend their soils are subject to poverty, decreased household nutrition, and
incentives to emigrate (Haileslassie et al. 2005; USAID 2008; Yisehak et al. 2013; Mengistu
2006).
Farmers cultivating unleveled land can protect their farmlands and local environment
from the effects of erosion by employing a variety of mechanical or biological measures (Adgo
et al. 2013; Haileslassie et al. 2005). Although the benefits of practicing soil and water
conservation techniques through mechanical and biological means are clear, not every farmer
within hillside agricultural communities have adopted them.
(cid:36)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:56)(cid:54)(cid:3)(cid:51)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:83)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:89)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:83)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:182)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:74)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)
opportunity to live and work beside Ethiopian farmers, agriculture extension workers,
government workers, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and community based
organizations. The first community in which I served practiced very few soil and water
conservation (SWC) strategies although the threat of erosion in that region was substantial. In
other regions of the country, however, I was exposed to communities which made extensive use
of biological and mechanical technologies to reduce damaging effects of soil and water runoff.
The differences I observed between these communities with respect to their land use systems
made me question the factors that produced these dissimilarities. I resolved to conduct the
following case study with the objective of identifying influences related to the adoption and
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diffusion of SWC practices of two farming communities (cid:177) one representing little-to-no practice
of SWC technologies and the other representing extensive use of SWC technologies.
From data gathered through interviews and participant observation within two farming
communities, I sought to identify factors that positively or negatively influenced the adoption of
SWC technologies. Understanding these factors will enhance agriculture outreach by providing
insights to improve effectiveness and efficiency of agriculture extension strategies. Given the
need for soil and water land management and the benefits of SWC technologies, this study is
valuable for individuals and organizations employed in the agriculture sector of Ethiopia.
I anticipate that the conclusions and recommendations from this report will increase
understanding of the adoption and diffusion of SWC innovations, specifically within the study
areas where data were collected, and generally contribute to the body of knowledge related to the
dissemination of SWC technologies in rural Ethiopia.

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