Factor Analysis and Psychometric Properties of the Abridged WOSC

212 Pages·2012·2.04 MB·English

The Structure of Adolescent and Adult Savoring and
its Relationship to Feeling Good and Functioning Well

By
Erica D. Chadwick

A thesis submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology
at Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand.

2012
Abstract

I sought to contribute to the understanding of positive health, in particular savoring and
wellbeing, by conducting concurrent and longitudinal studies with adolescents and adults. The
thesis begins with a review of the literature including savoring theory (Bryant & Veroff, 2007)
and the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 2001); these theories led to
the key expectations that the psychometric structure of everyday savoring would be similar for
adolescents and adults, and that amplifying savoring would positively predict wellbeing. Data
obtained from two surveys, a paper-and-pencil survey with New Zealand adolescents (13 to 15
years old) and an internet-based survey with international adults (16 to 88 years old), were
investigated in four studies across four empirical chapters (Chapters 2 through 5).
Study 1 (Chapter 2) explored the similarities and differences in the psychometric
structure of an abridged Ways of Savoring Checklist, labelled everyday savoring, between
adolescents (N = 463) and adults (N = 980), as well as mean group differences in adolescents‘
and adults‘ degree of savoring. Study 2 (Chapter 3) investigated the concurrent relationships
between adolescent and adult everyday savoring and hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing as well
as the ability of savoring to moderate wellbeing. Then, Study 3 and Study 4 investigated the
relationships between savoring and wellbeing across time for adolescents (N = 265; Study 3,
Chapter 4) and adults (N = 1858; Study 4, Chapter 5), including savoring as a mediator of the
relationship between everyday positive events and wellbeing (Chapter 4), and orientations to
happiness as a moderator of savoring and everyday positive events (Chapter 5).
Results indicated that adolescents and adults yielded a similar four-factor structure of
everyday savoring: dampening (―I don‘t deserve it‖), low arousal (―I tried to slow down‖), high
arousal (―I jumped up and down‖), and self-focus (―I reminded myself how lucky I was‖)
savoring strategies, which proved to be invariant across time. The adolescent group, however,
manifested a stronger association between amplifying (i.e. low arousal, high arousal, and self-
focused savoring) and dampening savoring. Adolescents also reported higher levels of
dampening compared to the adult group, whereas adults reported higher amplifying than
adolescents. As expected, high arousal and self-focused savoring were positively, and dampening
was negatively, associated with wellbeing indicators for adolescents and adults. However, low
arousal savoring was negatively associated with hedonia for adolescents, but positively associated
with eudaimonia for adults. The longitudinal analyses indicated that amplifying savoring
predicted increases in wellbeing whereas dampening savoring predicted decreases in wellbeing
for both age groups. The direction of effect, however, was not always as expected, questioning
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general assumptions of savoring theory and the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions.
These exceptions are most noted and explored in the final empirical chapter, Chapter 5.
Overall the findings suggest that savoring is similar and similarly important for wellbeing
over the age range incorporating adolescence to adulthood, although potential developmental
differences are important to consider. The contribution of this thesis to the study of savoring,
the field of positive psychology, and positive health development are reviewed in Chapter 6, as
are the implications, limitations, and future directions.

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Acknowledgements

My thesis is not an accomplishment I achieved in isolation, although I would rather not attempt
to count how many days I felt like I was living in a cave. The truth is that without my supervisor,
mentors, participants, family, friends, and colleagues contributing to my work and shining light
into my metaphorical cave, minor hurdles would have appeared to be unsurpassable mountains.
To begin, the backbone of this thesis is the schools, principals, counsellors, adolescents
and international adults who were interested and participated in my studies on multiple
occasions. I hope that my research will in some small way add to the efforts of positive
psychology to make their lives fuller.
I owe thanks to the Royal Society of New Zealand for generously supporting my
research and Victoria University for supporting my participation in two eye-opening conferences.
Thank you both. I owe my gratitude specifically to the administration and technical staff at
Victoria University: Ngaire, Nicola, Jebi, Wendy, Doug Drysdale, Michael, and Vijay. Their
assistance with all my slightly panicked requests and form phobia was immensely appreciated.
I was incredibly fortunate to have an overwhelmingly positive PhD experience, and this
is greatly due to my outstanding and attentive supervision by Associate Professor Paul Jose. Paul
taught me the wonderful world of statistical equation modelling with amazing patience and
simplicity. He has encouraged me as a researcher, teacher, mentor, public speaker and writer—all
skills I know will hold me well throughout my career. Professor Fred B. Bryant was also
instrumental in the development of my abilities as a researcher. Phone calls and a summer lunch
in Leadville Colorado with Fred stimulated my enthusiasm for research and graced me with
unmatched words of motivation when I most needed them. I can only hope to be as patient,
encouraging and inspiring to others about psychology and savoring as Paul and Fred are for me.
I am also indebted to Aaron Jarden and grateful to know his inspiration, accessibility, and
his tireless efforts spearheading the International Wellbeing Study. I know that if I am able to
adopt even an ounce of his passion and drive my career will positively progress for years to
come.
I am honoured that during this process I was supported by remarkable friends. In
particular, Robyn Langlands brought me perspective and patience when I misplaced mine. And
Gemma Sheehan provided me with reliably sound and subtle advice that imparted me with
tangible strategies for, figuratively, ―putting one foot in front of the other.‖ I feel privileged to be
acquainted with their encouragement and I look forward to sharing many more of our
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experiences. I hope that I support and encourage others as well as I have been supported and
encouraged by Robyn and Gemma.
I have saved those that mean the most to me for last. My mother, Theresa Nieslanik, has
unwaveringly supported me since day one. Watching her create purpose and meaning from her
brightest and darkest moments taught me to approach my PhD pragmatically and in an engaged
manner. Although my sister, Melinda, is no longer here, the strength and fortitude I learned from
her kept me steadily moving toward this goal. My in-laws, Steve and John Chadwick, have
provided me with more than I could ever ask. With their support I have more than survived, I
flourished as a PhD candidate, while being a wife and mother. My husband, Rama Chadwick, has
been by my side most of all. He endured the slumps and celebrated the highs. He snuck in timely
doses of reality (and cups of tea) and always reminded me I could do it. I am so grateful for each
moment I shared throughout this process with Rama and our stunning children—Manaia Te
Ataiwaho Makani and Kurai Te Manihera. This thesis is dedicated to you, my boys, and to all the
moments we get to savor together.

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Table of Contents

Abstract .................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ iii
Contents ................................................................................................................................. v
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... x
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... xii
Overview .................................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1: Why Study Everyday Savoring? ..................................................................... 2
The birth of Positive Psychology .......................................................................... 2
Definitions of happiness ............................................................................................ 4
The components of happiness ................................................................................. 7
The benefits of happiness ......................................................................................... 12
Savoring is good for happiness ................................................................................. 15
Savoring from adolescence to adulthood ............................................................. 18
Chapter 2: The Structure of Everyday Savoring ............................................................ 20
The Ways of Savoring Checklist ............................................................................. 20
The savoring strategies: How positive events and affect are enhanced and
22
prolonged ......................................................................................................................
Influences on the way people savor ........................................................................ 26
Hypotheses: Further directions in the investigation of savoring strategies ...... 29
Method ................................................................................................................................. 30
Participants ................................................................................................................... 30
Procedure ...................................................................................................................... 31
Measures ...................................................................................................................... 32
Results ................................................................................................................................. 35
Analytic Strategy ........................................................................................................ 35
v
Factorial validity/configural analysis: Is the model of savoring everyday
37
positive events similar for adolescents and adults? .................................................
Structural Invariance: Are there differences in the multi-dimensional nature of
43
savoring strategies between adolescents and adults? ...............................................
Gender and Age: Do gender and age influence savoring strategies? .................. 46
Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 49
Hypothesis 1: The configuration of everyday savoring of everyday positive
49
events ............................................................................................................................
Hypothesis 2: The Structure of Savoring Everyday Positive Events .................. 50
Hypotheses 3 through 5: How gender and age influence the savoring of
51
everyday positive events .............................................................................................
Chapter 3: Concurrent Savoring and Wellbeing ............................................................. 54
Brief review: Indicators of wellbeing ..................................................................... 55
Savoring‘s association with wellbeing ..................................................................... 57
Does age moderate the relationship between savoring and wellbeing? ............ 58
Hypotheses: Validity of adolescent and adult everyday savoring .................... 60
Method ................................................................................................................................. 63
Participants and Procedure ........................................................................................ 63
Measures ...................................................................................................................... 64
Results ................................................................................................................................. 66
Analytic Strategy ........................................................................................................ 66
Non-parametric tests: Do adolescents and adults similarly rank their
66
endorsement of savoring strategies? .........................................................................
Discriminant Validity: Do savoring strategies uniquely relate to wellbeing? ....... 68
Do savoring strategies moderate the relationship from hedonic to eudaimonic
74
wellbeing? .......................................................................................................................
Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 77
Hypotheses 1 and 2: Ranking of the four everyday savoring strategies ............ 77
Hypotheses 3 and 4: Savoring Strategies: Unique predictors of wellbeing ........ 78
vi
Hypotheses 5 and 6: Savoring predictors and wellbeing and the influence of
79
age .................................................................................................................................
Hypotheses 7 through 10: Moderating the relationship from hedonic to
81
eudaimonic wellbeing ...............................................................................................
Chapter 4: Adolescent Savoring and Wellbeing over Time ....................................... 83
Hypotheses: Adolescent savoring and wellbeing ............................................... 85
Method ................................................................................................................................. 86
Participants and Procedure ..................................................................................... 86
Measures ...................................................................................................................... 88
Results ................................................................................................................................. 89
Analytic Strategy ........................................................................................................ 89
Reliability and validity: Are the four factors of savoring stable over time and
91
would concurrent relationships be replicated across time? ...................................
Are savoring strategies predictors of positive affect and eudaimonia over time,
94
and is the savoring and positive affect relationship bi-directional? .......................
Structural mediational models: Are there mediating relationships between
positive life events, savoring, positive affect, and eudaimonia concurrently and 98
over time? ......................................................................................................................
Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 109
Hypotheses 1 through 4: Psychometric tests of savoring .................................... 109
Hypotheses 5 through 8: Savoring strategies: Predictors of positive affect and
109
eudaimonia ....................................................................................................................
Hypotheses 9 through 11: Savoring and positive affect: Concurrent and
111
longitudinal mediators ...............................................................................................
Chapter 5: Adult Savoring and Wellbeing over Time .................................................. 113
Hedonic and eudaimonic orientations to happiness as moderators of savoring .. 115
Hypotheses: Adult savoring and wellbeing ....................................................... 116
Method ................................................................................................................................. 117
Participants ................................................................................................................... 117
Procedure ...................................................................................................................... 118
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Measures ...................................................................................................................... 118
Results ................................................................................................................................. 119
Analytic Strategy ........................................................................................................ 119
Confirmation of findings from adolescent savoring with adults: The reliability
120
and validity of savoring ..............................................................................................
Developmental trends in savoring, hedonic and eudaimonic orientations to
126
happiness, satisfaction with life, and everyday positive life events ......................
The directions of effect between savoring, hedonic and eudaimonic
orientations to happiness, satisfaction with life, and everyday positive life 128
events across three months ........................................................................................
The moderating influence of pleasure and meaning orientations to happiness
135
on savoring .................................................................................................................
Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 138
Hypotheses 1 through 4: Psychometric tests of savoring ..................................... 139
Hypotheses 5 through 7: Developmental differences in savoring, wellbeing,
139
and positive events ......................................................................................................
Hypotheses 8 through 11: The direction of effect between savoring, wellbeing,
140
and positive events ......................................................................................................
Exploratory analyses and findings: Bi-directional relationships .......................... 145
Hypotheses 12 and 13: The moderating influence of pleasure and meaning
145
orientations to happiness on savoring .....................................................................
Chapter 6: Contributing to Savoring and Wellbeing Research ................................. 147
Key Findings ................................................................................................................ 147
Similarities and differences amongst savoring strategies across age ..................... 148
Savoring and everyday positive events .................................................................. 149
Savoring and subjective wellbeing ......................................................................... 149
Strengths and Implications ............................................................................................. 152
Everyday savoring ..................................................................................................... 153
Everyday savoring and subjective wellbeing .......................................................... 154
Limitations ........................................................................................................................... 155
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Future Directions ............................................................................................................. 157
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 157
References ................................................................................................................................. 160
Appendices .............................................................................................................................. 179
Appendix A: Original Ways of Savoring Checklist ............................................... 179
Appendix B: Everyday Positive Events Scale (Adolescents) ............................ 184
Appendix C: Everyday Positive Events Scale (Adults) ....................................... 186
Appendix D: Abridged Ways of Savoring Checklist (Adolescents) .................. 187
Appendix E: Abridged Ways of Savoring Checklist (Adults) ............................ 189
Appendix F: Satisfaction with Life Scale ................................................................ 191
Appendix G: Temporal Satisfaction with Life Scale ............................................. 192
Appendix H: Subjective Happiness Scale ................................................................ 193
Appendix I: Mental Health Short Form ................................................................ 194
Appendix J: Orientations to Happiness Scale ....................................................... 195
Appendix K: Positive Negative Affective Schedule ............................................. 197

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