Extra-Ordinary Ergonomics: How to Accommodate Small and Big Persons, the Disabled and Elderly, Expectant Mothers, and Children

271 Pages·2005·4.74 MB·English

by  Karl H.E. Kroemer

“E O ”
XTRA- RDINARY
E
RGONOMICS
H A
OW TO CCOMMODATE
S B P ,
MALL AND IG ERSONS
D E ,
THE ISABLED AND LDERLY
E M ,
XPECTANT OTHERS
C
AND HILDREN

“E O ”
XTRA- RDINARY
E
RGONOMICS
H A
OW TO CCOMMODATE
S B P ,
MALL AND IG ERSONS
D E ,
THE ISABLED AND LDERLY
E M ,
XPECTANT OTHERS
C
AND HILDREN
K H. E. K
ARL ROEMER
HFES Issues in
Human Factors and Ergonomics Series
Volume 4
Supervising Series Editor
Jefferson M. Koonce
Published in cooperation with the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, P.O. Box 1369,
Santa Monica, CA 90406-1369 USA; 310/394-1811, Fax [phone], http://hfes.org.
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A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.
3668_Discl.fm Page 1 Monday, July 11, 2005 2:04 PM
Published in 2006 by
CRC Press
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© 2006 by Karl H. E. Kroemer
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International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-3668-6 (Hardcover)
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kroemer, K. H. E., 1933-
"Extra-ordinary" ergonomics: how to accommodate small and big persons, the disabled and elderly,
expectant mothers, and children / Karl Kroemer.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-3668-6 (alk. paper)
1. Human engineering. 2. Engineering design. I. Title.
TA166.K773 2005
620.8'2--dc22 2004062866
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Table of Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Foreword..................................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 “Extra-Ordinary” Individuals and Groups of People..........................1
Introduction................................................................................................................1
Overview....................................................................................................................2
Defining Ergonomics.................................................................................................2
Task Demands on the Person...........................................................................2
Human Capabilities and Limitations...............................................................3
Defining “Extra-Ordinary” Individuals and Population Groups..............................3
A Day in the Life of My Mother..............................................................................5
Differing From the Norm..........................................................................................6
Anthropometry.................................................................................................7
Anthropometry of the U.S. Population..................................................7
Physical Capabilities........................................................................................9
Ability To Do Strenuous Work............................................................10
Muscle Strength....................................................................................10
Thermoregulation of the Body.............................................................12
Capabilities of the Mind..........................................................................................15
The Nervous System......................................................................................16
Sensors..................................................................................................17
Workload and Stress.............................................................................17
Sensing the Environment.........................................................................................18
The Vision Sense............................................................................................18
Mobility of the Eyes.............................................................................19
Line of Sight.........................................................................................19
Size of the Visual Target......................................................................19
Visual Acuity........................................................................................20
Accommodation....................................................................................22
Visual Problems....................................................................................22
The Hearing Sense.........................................................................................23
Hearing in Noise..................................................................................24
The Senses of Smell and Taste......................................................................26
Smell.....................................................................................................26
Taste......................................................................................................26
The Cutaneous Senses...................................................................................27
Sensing Touch.......................................................................................28
Sensing Warmth and Coldness.............................................................28
Sensing Pain.........................................................................................28
vi ”Extra-Ordinary“ Ergonomics
Research Needs..............................................................................................29
Responding to Stimuli.............................................................................................29
Reaction Time................................................................................................29
Motion Time...................................................................................................30
Response Time...............................................................................................30
Summary..................................................................................................................30
Chapter 2 Assessment Methods and Techniques...............................................33
Overview..................................................................................................................33
Measurement Teams................................................................................................33
Anthropometric Techniques.....................................................................................34
Assessing Energetic Capabilities.............................................................................35
Assessing Muscle Strength......................................................................................37
Assessing Mental Workload....................................................................................39
Assessing Vision Capabilities..................................................................................40
Assessing Auditory Capabilities..............................................................................41
Assessing Smelling and Tasting Capabilities..........................................................42
Odorants and Odors.......................................................................................42
Gustation........................................................................................................42
Assessing Taction Senses........................................................................................43
Assessing Response Times......................................................................................44
Reaction Time................................................................................................44
Motion Time...................................................................................................45
Response Time...............................................................................................46
Assessing Complex Capabilities.............................................................................46
Activities of Daily Living..............................................................................47
Systematic Gathering of Information......................................................................48
Intrinsic Performance Elements.....................................................................48
The “Allied IPE” Model................................................................................49
Review of Existing Assessments...................................................................49
Gerontology..........................................................................................50
Medicine...............................................................................................50
Physiology............................................................................................51
Psychology............................................................................................51
Biomechanics........................................................................................52
Sports Sciences.....................................................................................52
Anthropometry......................................................................................52
Rehabilitation Engineering...................................................................53
Industrial Engineering..........................................................................53
Conclusions Drawn From the Review of Existing Tests..............................54
Possible Solutions..........................................................................................55
Summary..................................................................................................................55
Table of Contents vii
Chapter 3 Principles of Human Factors Engineering.........................................57
Overview..................................................................................................................57
Striving for Better Designs......................................................................................57
Designing for Safety......................................................................................58
Designing for Ease of Use.............................................................................58
Designing for Variability................................................................................59
Using Statistics...............................................................................................61
Phantoms, Ghosts, and the “Average Person” Manikin......................61
Proper Design Procedures.......................................................................................64
Single Cutoff..................................................................................................65
“Max or Min” Design..........................................................................65
Dual Cutoff.....................................................................................................65
“Min and Max” Design........................................................................65
Use of Average Values...................................................................................66
How to Determine Critical Design Values....................................................66
Statistical Procedures.....................................................................................67
Determining a Single Percentile as Cutoff Point (“Max or Min”)......67
Determining the Upper and Lower Limits of a Range
(“Min” and “Max”).........................................................................67
Combining Anthropometric Data Sets.................................................69
How to Get Missing Data..............................................................................70
Designing for Body Strength..................................................................................71
Designing the “Signal Loop”..................................................................................72
Designing for Groups of People and for Individuals.............................................76
Summary..................................................................................................................77
Chapter 4 Design for Movement: With Special Solutions for the Very
Small and Big, for Those With Lower Back Problems, and for
Bedridden Persons..............................................................................79
Overview..................................................................................................................79
Design for Motion Instead of Posture.....................................................................79
Design to Fit Body Dimensions..............................................................................86
Design for Very Small and Very Big People..........................................................97
What Data to Use?.........................................................................................97
Calculating Data.............................................................................................98
Measuring Data..............................................................................................99
Design to Avoid Harm and Injury.........................................................................100
Medical Errors..............................................................................................100
Repetition-Caused Injuries...........................................................................101
Low Back Problems.....................................................................................102
Beds and Chairs...........................................................................................104
viii ”Extra-Ordinary“ Ergonomics
Lift Belts......................................................................................................105
Nurses and Their Patients............................................................................105
Summary................................................................................................................107
Chapter 5 Design for Persons with Disabilities...............................................109
Overview................................................................................................................109
Defining and Measuring Disabilities.....................................................................109
Performance Impairments and Disabilities..................................................110
Problem Identification Matrix......................................................................113
“Ergonomics for One”...........................................................................................113
Locomotion Aids...................................................................................................118
Wheelchairs..................................................................................................118
Automobiles.................................................................................................118
Use of Computers..................................................................................................120
Ergonomic Design of Telesupport Systems................................................122
Consumer Products................................................................................................123
Selection of Assistive Technology.........................................................................123
Sources of Information and Advice......................................................................124
Summary................................................................................................................125
Chapter 6 Design for Aging..............................................................................127
Overview................................................................................................................127
What to Expect as One Ages................................................................................127
Demographics...............................................................................................127
Terminology.................................................................................................128
Life Expectancy...........................................................................................128
How We Age................................................................................................128
“Successful Aging”......................................................................................129
Aging-Related Changes and Their Ergonomic Counteractions............................130
Changes in Anthropometry..........................................................................130
Changes in Musculoskeletal Attributes.......................................................131
Changes in Respiration and Circulation......................................................132
Changes in Nervous Functions....................................................................133
Changes in the Brain...................................................................................133
Changes in the Capacity for Physical Work................................................134
Changes in Visual Functions.......................................................................135
Eye Movements..................................................................................135
Accommodation Problems.................................................................135
Less Light Passing Through the Pupil...............................................136
Cataracts.............................................................................................136
Yellowing of Lens and Humor...........................................................136
Floaters, Veil, and Glare.....................................................................136
Loss of Cones, Rods, or Retinal Pigment.........................................137
Self-Reported Vision Problems..........................................................137
Recommended Checkups...................................................................137
Table of Contents ix
Changes in Hearing......................................................................................137
Changes in Taste and Smell.........................................................................138
Changes in Somesthetic Sensitivity.............................................................138
Changes in Sensory and Psychomotor Performance...................................139
Designing for the Older Person.............................................................................140
Designing for the Aging Eye.......................................................................142
Designing for the Aging Driver and Passenger...........................................143
Designing Computer Systems for the Aging........................................................144
Designing Internet Health Information........................................................146
Designing Living Quarters for the Aging.............................................................146
A Home Suitable for Older Persons............................................................148
Kitchen................................................................................................150
Bathroom............................................................................................150
Bedroom.............................................................................................152
Designing Nursing Homes...........................................................................152
Remodeling an Existing Habitat..................................................................154
Sources of Information and Advice......................................................................159
Summary................................................................................................................159
Chapter 7 Design for Expectant Mothers.........................................................163
Overview................................................................................................................163
Special Designs for Women?................................................................................163
Changes in Body Dimensions of Expectant Mothers...........................................165
Using Seat Belts...........................................................................................167
Changes in Work Capacity During Pregnancy.....................................................169
Ergonomic Design Recommendations..................................................................172
Summary................................................................................................................172
Chapter 8 Design for Children and Adolescents..............................................175
Overview................................................................................................................175
Children Grow Into Adolescents...........................................................................175
Anthropometry of Children and Adolescents.......................................................176
Overweight and Obesity..............................................................................178
Growing Bodies...........................................................................................179
Growth Charts..............................................................................................181
Body Mass of Children and Adolescents..............................................................183
Body Strength of Children and Adolescents.........................................................189
Designing for Children and Adolescents..............................................................190
Designing Safe Openings.............................................................................191
Designing Furniture for Play and Work......................................................192
School Furniture.................................................................................194
Computer Play Stations and Workplaces...........................................196
Summary................................................................................................................198