Exploring the relationship between extracurricular participation and probability of employment for

52 Pages·2009·0.29 MB·English

EXPLORING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXTRACURRICULAR PARTICIPATION &
PROBABILITY OF EMPLOYMENT FOR HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES

A Thesis
submitted to the Faculty of the
Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
of Georgetown University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of
Master of
Public Policy

By

Nitya Alen Joseph, B.A.

Washington, DC
April 8, 2009
EXPLORING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXTRACURRICULAR PARTICIPATION & PROBABILITY
OF EMPLOYMENT FOR HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES

Nitya Alen Joseph, B.A.

Thesis Advisor: Laura LoGerfo, PhD

ABSTRACT

Extracurricular activities are gaining more attention from educators and policy makers, as
they are considered a means to increase academic achievement as well as to provide social and
emotional enrichment. Research focused on participation in these activities and its possible link
to various labor market outcomes tests whether extracurricular activities support one of the basic
goals of education: to prepare a skilled labor force. This study examines the implications of
participating in extracurricular activities during high school for a very specific population: high
school graduates who do not immediately enroll in any type of post secondary education after
high school. Within this population, extracurricular participants and non-participants are
compared, on their likelihoods of being employed the year after finishing high school. This
relationship is subdivided by five types of extracurricular activities a student participated in,
specifically: athletics, leadership, arts, clubs, and academics activities. Of the five activities
studied in this paper, participation in leadership extracurriculars is associated with the highest
likelihood of being employed directly after completing high school for among these students.
Participation in athletic extracurricular activities is negatively related to being employed directly
after graduation for these students.
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To Appa, Amma, Achachen, Kavitha, and all my family and friends who support me
throughout my every endeavor. I especially want to give thanks to Laura LoGerfo for her
valuable guidance throughout the research and writing of this thesis. I would also like to
thank Eric Gardner, who helped me tremendously throughout this process. Finally, I
would like to dedicate this to the amazing educators and colleagues who inspire me to
work within the education sector.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction................................................................................................................................1
Policy Question..........................................................................................................................3
Literature Review.......................................................................................................................4
Research Hypothesis................................................................................................................13
Description of the Data.............................................................................................................14
Model and Methodology..........................................................................................................15
Empirical Results & Analysis...................................................................................................35
Discussion of Findings.............................................................................................................40
Implications and Suggestions for Future Research....................................................................41
Bibliography............................................................................................................................41

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INTRODUCTION
Youth entering the work force directly out of high school face several challenges.
This population commonly faces difficulty securing employment after high school due to
a lack of marketable skills and social networks (Rosenbaum et al, 1990). Additionally,
they often do not work consistently or maintain the same job for a long period of time.
While more students are applying to higher education institutions after high school, there
are still many who do not enroll in college directly after graduation. In the high school
graduating class of 2007, about 33 percent of the students did not enroll in college for the
following year, and of these students, approximately 76 percent participated in the labor
force (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008). For many of these individuals, high school is
one of the last institutions where they have the opportunity to formally learn academic
and social skills. Therefore, the high school experience for these students especially
influences their opportunities after they graduate from high school.
Beyond providing formal learning experiences, high schools also provide
opportunities for informal learning. Nearly every school in the country offers some type
of extracurricular activity and the majority of students participate in some extracurricular
activity during both primary and secondary school (US Department of Education, 1995 &
2006). The benefits of participation are therefore of particular interest to educators and
policy makers who search for ways to enrich students(cid:146) academic, social, and emotional
enrichment development. For students who do not enroll in college directly after high
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school, participation in extracurricular activities can influence these students(cid:146) marketable
skills and potential for employment.
Several researchers have found that extracurricular participation is positively
related to student academic performance and the development of social skills.
Specifically, engagement in extracurricular activities is linked to increased academic
achievement, lower rates of delinquent behavior, and lower drop out rates (Eccles et al,
1999; Dryfoos, 1999; Mahoney, 2000; Cosden et al, 2001; Kahne et al, 2001; Hollister,
2003; White & Gager, 2007). While these studies report that participating in
extracurricular activities is significantly related to positive outcomes, many researchers
find that the magnitude of the relationship is often small and inconsistent, varying by the
type of extracurricular activity (Marsh, 1992; McNeal, 1995; Cooper et al, 1999).
Indeed, empirical proof within the research is plagued by several issues, including sample
selection bias and widespread variety with the structure and attendance of these activities
(Holland et al, 1987; Eccles et al, 2002). Moreover, a few studies have shown
diminishing returns to participation in extracurricular activities when students become
involved in several at one time (Swanson, 2000; Schneider, 2003).
But most of this research studies the benefits of participating in extracurricular
activities for students who are still in school, who are college bound, or who graduated
from high school and/or college several years ago. There is little in this field that
examines if and how participation in these activities is related to outcomes among
students who graduate from high school, but do not enroll directly in higher education.
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Although the lower dropout rates associated with participating in extracurricular
activities may benefit this population of students more than others, there may be other
benefits to extracurricular participation for this population. For students who may not
wish to pursue further education or cannot afford to do so immediately after high school,
the skills with which they leave high school become especially important. Both
educators and policy makers must understand what skills and knowledge bases are best
supported during these students(cid:146) high school experiences in order to maximize their
opportunities once they leave secondary school.
POLICY QUESTION
For students who do not enroll in post secondary education directly after high
school, what is the relationship between participating in extracurricular activities and the
probability of being employed? Specifically, how is the specific type of extracurricular
activity differentially related to this probability? Previous research has examined the
connections between participating in athletic and leadership activities and income levels
for students (Barron et al, 2000; Kuhn et al, 2005); these studies find that over ten years
after high school, there is a positive relationship between participating in these
extracurricular activities and income levels. In contrast, research studying earnings for
individuals who enter the work force directly after high school finds that participating in
extracurricular activities has no association on income levels (Crawford et al, 1997).
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While previous research has studied earnings, this paper examines if and how
participation in extracurricular activities during high school is related to the probability of
being employed among high school graduates who do not immediately enroll in post
secondary education. Furthermore, this study aims to distinguish this relationship by the
following types of extracurricular activities: athletics, leadership, arts, clubs, and
academics.
LITERATURE REVIEW
In order to comprehend how participating in extracurricular activities is associated
with being employed or unemployed for these students, it is essential first to define the
field, then to examine who participates in extracurricular activities, and finally to turn to
how, if at all, participation is related to positive academic, social, and emotional
outcomes.
Defining the field
Defining extracurricular activities proves to be a difficult task due to the vast
scope of the field. Extracurriculars cover a range of foci and structure (Huebner &
Mancini, 2005). These activities can range from having a single focus, for example
music, or can encompass a combination of program areas, such as academics and
leadership development. Generally, programs are defined as those possessing (cid:147)structure,
boundaries, and goals(cid:148) while extracurricular activities are those (cid:147)includ[ing] athletics,
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lessons, and extracurricular activities that may or may not take place within the context of
a well defined position(cid:146) (Wimer et al, 2008).
Rather than focusing on structured programs, this study examines extracurricular
activities, which are generally sponsored by schools and grounded in athletics,
academics, arts, leadership, and clubs. Unlike programs, extracurricular activities are not
commonly measured for success against quantifiable benchmarks or objectives.
Activities include individualized lessons such as tutoring or mentoring sessions and
group activities such team sports or leadership clubs.
Participation ranges as well; students can participate in any number or
combination of activities. One study found that over a period of six years, from sixth to
twelfth grade, most students participated on average in between one and two activities
consistently (Eccles et al, 2003). Another study reported a sample of eighth graders
being involved in an average of 5.1 extracurricular activities in one year (Kahne et al,
2003). Many of these activities do not require participants to attend daily (Vandell et al,
2007). It is this voluntary and inconsistent nature of extracurricular participation which
makes it difficult to gauge the quality of these various activities (Kahne et al, 2001), a
feat this study will not attempt. Although there is diversity among extracurricular
participation rates, there are clear trends of extracurricular participation among groups
defined by race/ethnicity, gender, family factors, and other characteristics.

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The Participants
Much of the research in this field suggests that involvement in extracurricular
activities depends on a variety of factors, including income, family, and individual
characteristics (i.e.: gender and race/ethnicity) (Huebner & Mancini, 2003; Smolensky &
Gootman, 2003; US Department of Education, 2007; White & Gager, 2007). Students
from higher-income families are more likely to participate, although participation in
extracurricular activities shows larger gains in academic and social development for
students from lower-income backgrounds (Huebner & Mancini, 1999). One challenge to
extracurricular activity participation for lower-income families is the cost of some
activities (White & Gager, 2007). Renting musical instruments, traveling to debates, and
purchasing athletic gear may pose an insurmountable challenge to participation among
low-income students. Additionally, schools in low income areas may face an issue of
inadequate infrastructure and resources that prevent schools from hosting a wide range of
enrichment programs (Reed, 1975).
Family endorsement and support for enrolling in extracurricular activities also
predicts extracurricular participation (Smolensky & Gootman, 2003). The students more
likely to participate in volunteering and extracurricular activities are those more likely to
share supportive and stable relationships with their parents (Huebner & Mancini, 2003).
Apart from socioeconomic and family characteristics, participation varies by
gender and race/ethnicity, based on the type of extracurricular activity in question.
Analyses of data from the U.S. Department of Education(cid:146)s nationally representative
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