Exploring the implications of cultural diversity for environmental learning at an African aquarium

284 Pages·2017·2.8 MB·English

by  Judy Mann

Exploring the implications of cultural diversity for
environmental learning at an African aquarium
Judy Brenda Mann
Master of Science
Bachelor of Business Administration

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at
The University of Queensland 2016
Business School (Tourism Cluster)
Abstract
Zoos and aquariums, which are visited by over 700 million people each year, can play a vital
role in exposing and sensitising visitors about the importance of environmental conservation
and encourage them to engage in environmentally responsible behaviours after their visit. To
attract visitors, zoos and aquariums offer a range of experiences that focus on the viewing of
live animals. These may include animal presentations, personal interactions between staff and
visitors, opportunities to physically interact with the animals and, most commonly, the use of
interpretive signage. Most zoo and aquarium experiences are aimed at increasing visitors’
awareness of, interest in and concern for environmental issues. To improve the design of
visitor experiences, research is needed to evaluate the impact of a visit on visitor
environmental learning outcomes, which are a major part of the zoo and aquarium raison
d’etre.
In this regard, literature indicates that little work has been undertaken to explore the impact
that culture (and in the case of multicultural audiences, cultural diversity) has on visitors’ zoo
and aquarium conservation learning experiences. Such information is of particular relevance
to uShaka Sea World, located in the multicultural city of Durban, South Africa, where
educational experiences have traditionally been modelled on Western best-practice without
consideration of the increasing numbers of visitors from diverse cultural backgrounds.
Accordingly, this thesis aims to build a better understanding of the needs of South African
visitors to uShaka; to investigate the influence of culture on their on-site experiences and
conservation learning; and to use such information to inform the design of culturally
inclusive environmental learning experiences.
This research involved the collection of primarily quantitative data from 748 visitors,
representative of three cultural groups. Pre- and post-visit questionnaires were designed to
identify relevant demographic, psychographic and cultural characteristics of visitors, as well
as to provide information on how visitors experienced the site, and the impact of the visit on
environmental learning measured immediately after the visit. The extent and nature of the
impact of cultural group on visitor learning was assessed. The focus on cultural differences
necessitated an extensive assessment of cultural equivalence of meaning, and adjustment for
culture-specific response styles.
Comparisons between the three cultural groups revealed differences on a range of learning
outcomes, which could not be explained by confounding with other demographic variables,
or by culture-specific response styles. Cultural group was, however, a relatively weak
predictor of learning outcomes. Psychographic constructs, in particular motivational variables
and connection to nature, were much stronger predictors of learning. The results of this study
suggest that, while culture does have an impact on environmental learning, psychographic
constructs explain much of this effect, as well as explaining a significant amount of
additional variance.
The findings of this study have important theoretical, methodological and practical
implications for researchers interested in the influence of cultural background on
environmental learning. The research describes the first analysis of the differences and
similarities in visitor characteristics, experiences and environmental learning of three South
African cultural groups. The study addressed the complex role of nature connectedness in
environmental learning amongst multiple cultures. It has also provided insights regarding the
communication of conservation messages and the use of message recall as a measure of
environmental learning. By providing evidence of the importance of addressing cultural
equivalence of meaning and culture-specific response styles in multicultural research, the
study has contributed methodologically to the design of more culturally sensitive instruments
by providing future researchers with suggestions to manage the methodological challenges of
multicultural research. Implications for the design of culturally responsive environmental
learning activities are discussed and recommendations for future research are presented.
Declaration by author
This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published
or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have
clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my
thesis.
I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical
assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional
editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The
content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my
research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has
been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or
other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been
submitted to qualify for another award.
I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University
Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis
be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a
period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School.
I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright
holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the
copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis.
Publications during candidature
Book chapter:
Mann, J.B. & Vernon, C.L. 2013. Using aquariums and their visitor experiences to promote
ecotourism goals: issues and best practices. In: International Handbook on Ecotourism. Eds:
Ballantyne, R. & Packer, J. Edward Elgar, Glos, 452-463.
Academic publication:
Mann-Lang, J. B., Ballantyne, R. & Packer, J. (2016): Does more education mean less fun? A
comparison of two animal presentations. International Zoo Yearbook 50: 155–164.
Conference abstracts:
Mann, J.B., Ballantyne, R. & Packer, J. (2015, June). Can we eat it – Exploring the cultural
challenges in marine ecotourism in Africa. Paper presented at the Best EN Think Tank XV,
Kruger National Park, South Africa.
Mann, J.B., Ballantyne, R., Packer, J. & Harris, G. (2015, July). Penguin Promises:
Encouraging visitor to uShaka Sea World to take action for the environment. Poster presented
at the Visitor Studies Association 28th Annual Conference, Indiana, USA.
Mann-Lang, J.B., Ballantyne, R. & Packer, J. (2016, September). The changing face of
tourism in South Africa - celebrating diversity. Paper presented at Tourism Education South
Africa, Cape Town, South Africa.
Mann-Lang, J.B., Harris, G., Ballantyne, R. & Packer, J. (2016, September). Penguin
Promises – Encouraging effective conservation action. 9th International Penguin Congress,
Cape Town, South Africa.
Mann-Lang, J.B. Ballantyne, R. & Packer, J. (2016, September). The changing face of
tourism in South Africa - celebrating diversity. Tourism Education South Africa Conference,
21 – 23 September, Cape Town, South Africa.
Mann-Lang, J.B. Ballantyne, R. & Packer, J. (2016, October). People for conservation – how
a better understanding of cultural diversity amongst visitors can make zoos and aquariums
better agents of change. 71st World Association of Zoos and Aquariums Annual Conference,
Puebla, Mexico.
Mann-Lang, J.B. Ballantyne, R. & Packer, J. (2016, October). Celebrating diversity – how a
better understanding of cultural diversity amongst visitors can help us to tell our conservation
stories. 23rd Biennial Conference of the International Zoo Educators Association. Buenos
Aires, Argentina.
Publications included in this thesis
No publications included.
Contributions by others to this thesis
No contributions by others
Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of
another degree
None
Acknowledgements
When I started this PhD, Professor Roy Ballantyne told me that doing a PhD was like taking
a long journey, he was right. In 2010 a fortuitous meeting with Roy while he was doing a
sabbatical in South Africa, set me on the PhD journey. To Roy, thank you for seeing the
potential in me and for offering to supervise my PhD, and for introducing me to my co-
supervisor Ass. Professor Jan Packer. I would like to sincerely thank Jan for guiding me
through the statistical quagmires, correcting many versions of chapters and for always
responding to my queries so quickly. Jan’s attention to detail is amazing and I could not have
asked for a more focussed supervisor. Roy has introduced me to a whole new research field
and steered me in the right direction for this PhD. Thank-you to both of you for working so
hard to get the best out of me.
Every journey needs provisions and for this I must thank Denis Browne most sincerely.
Without his innovative suggestions for fundraising this PhD journey would not have started.
To Denis and the wonderful gentlemen of the Sea World Foundation for Research, Education
and Development, your support made this journey possible and for that I am immensely
grateful. I would like to thank my colleagues at SAAMBR for their ongoing support,
particularly Denis Browne, Viv McMenamin, Dr Larry Oellermann and Dr Mark Penning.
Thanks go to my Mom and brother Douglas, who were always there for me along the way,
even though they have no idea why I have spent so much time writing a book that no one will
read, and to my sister Sheila for remote support, and the odd holiday together. I would also
like to thank my late Dad. He always said that I could do anything that I put my mind to—he
would be so proud of this PhD, and of the fact that I followed my dreams.
Doing a PhD remotely is challenging—thank goodness for Skype. While I would have loved
to have been a full time student, this was financially and logistically impossible and I was
only able to spend a few weeks each year in Brisbane. To my sister Ailsa, her husband
Malcolm and their children Cameron and Rebecca go my deepest gratitude—they opened
their home to me, welcomed me and supported me during every trip. From packing my
lunches to buying my train and phone cards, Alisa was my strength in Brisbane, especially
during the tough times.
I would like to thank our team of tireless data collectors, the team who assisted with the data
entry and validation, especially Nokwazi Shandu, the uShaka Sea World visitors who
completed the questionnaires and Alke Kruger, who enthusiastically designed the ACCESS
database. Many colleagues have been wonderfully supportive of my research and I would like
to thank every one of them for their words of encouragement especially Clifford Nxomani,
Sue Funston, Sylvia Jacobs, Princess Ncube, Jorge Santos, Tarryn Abrahams, Jone Porter,
John Werth, Ann Kunz, Gabby Harris, Paul Lotter, Hyla Ashford, Gayle Campkin and many
others.
Finally, I would like to thank my husband Bruce—without his love and support this journey
would simply not have been possible. Bruce is my partner not just for the PhD journey but for
the journey of life—I could ask for no better person to share my passion for our environment,
and my life.
Keywords
culture, environmental learning, aquarium, zoo, visitor characteristics, culture specific
response styles, nature connectedness, conservation message recall, experience design
Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC)
ANZSRC code: 150606 Tourist Behaviour and Visitor Experience, 100%
Fields of Research (FoR) Classification
FoR code: 1506, Tourism, 60%
FoR code: 1799, Other Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, 20%
FoR code: 1301, Continuing and Community Education, 20%
Contents
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 21
Personal background to this thesis ................................................................................................... 21
1.1 Environmental Crisis: Setting the scene................................................................................ 21
1.2 The research problem ........................................................................................................... 22
1.3 Research aim and approach .................................................................................................. 25
1.4 Significance of the research .................................................................................................. 26
1.5 Context of the research ........................................................................................................ 27
1.6 Outline of this thesis ............................................................................................................. 28
1.7 Relevant key definitions ........................................................................................................ 29
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................................... 31
Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 31
2.1 The role of zoos and aquariums in environmental learning ................................................. 32
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 32
2.1.1 The environmental crisis ...................................................................................................... 32
2.1.2 The history of zoos and aquariums ...................................................................................... 33
2.1.3 Reaching the zoo or aquarium visitor .................................................................................. 36
2.1.4 Visitor research in zoos and aquariums ............................................................................... 41
2.1.5 Zoos and aquariums as educational leisure settings ........................................................... 45
Summary to Section 2.1 ................................................................................................................ 47
2.2 Theories of learning in educational leisure settings ............................................................. 48
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 48
2.2.1 Constructivist learning theory .............................................................................................. 49
2.2.2 Sociocultural learning theory ............................................................................................... 50
2.2.3 Contextual model of learning .............................................................................................. 51
2.2.4 An empirical model of free-choice environmental learning ................................................ 53
Summary to Section 2.2 ................................................................................................................ 54
2.3 Understanding the visitor and the visit experience in educational leisure settings ............. 54
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 54
2.3.1 Understanding the visitor .................................................................................................... 55
2.3.2 Understanding the visit experience ..................................................................................... 69
Summary to Section 2.3 ................................................................................................................ 72
2.4 The South African context..................................................................................................... 74
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 74