expert consultation on integrated management of land and water conservation within an agro-sylvo

101 Pages·2014·9.15 MB·English

Proceedings of the
EXPERT CONSULTATION ON
INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF LAND AND
WATER CONSERVATION WITHIN AN
AGRO-SYLVO- PASTORAL SYSTEM
Safita, Syria
16-18 June 1997
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Regional Office for the Near East
Cairo, 1998
I
Proceedings of the
EXPERT CONSULTATION ON
INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF LAND AND
WATER CONSERVATION WITHIN AN
AGRO-SYLVO- PASTORAL SYSTEM
Safita, Syria
16-18 June 1997
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Regional Office for the Near East
Carro, 1998
Table of Contents
- Foreword ............................................................................................ iii
- Summary Report .................................................................................. iv
I. Background Papers
1. Marginal and Fragile Ecosystems, Problems and Management
Dr.Kassas, delivered by D. Burgeon FAD/Syria ................................................... 1
2. Soil and Water Conservation Practices for the Management of Fragile Ecosystems
Dr. Hazzauri, delivered by S. Zahaueh FAD/Syria ............................................. 17
3. Integrated Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral Management and Socio-economic Development
in Mountaineous Zones of Tunisia-A Study Case (Arabic)
Mr A. Bauzid. ................................................................................................ 25
The designations employed and the presentation ofmateria1 and maps in this document 4. Jordan Experience in Water Harvesting
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Dr. M Shatanawi............................................................................... 37
i\griculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any
country, territory, city or area or ofits authorities, or concerning the delimitation ofits 5. Supplemental Irrigation and Water Harvesting for hnproved Management
frontiers or boundaries. of Scarce Water Resources in the Dry Areas
Dr T. o..'eis . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...... 49
6. Management of Rangeland Resources within the Watershed Concept
Dr M. Zaroug .................................................................................... 61
7. The Activities ofGCP!lNT/S39IITA Project for the Integrated Forest
And Range land Management and Rational Water Use
Mr B.Cavalcaselle & Mr P.Del Lungo ...................................................... 85
8. State of Forest Resources and Forestry in the Near East Region
Dr.A.AI Fares... .......................................................................................... 101
Roving Seminar on Water Harvesting for hnproved Rainfed Production and
Supplementary Irrigation
DrS.Sarraj. FAG ....................................................................................... III
Summary Report: Conclusions and Recommendations of the Expert Consultation
on Water Harvesting for hnproved Agricultural Production
Cairo, Egypt, 21-25 November 1993
Dr. S.Sarraj .................................................................................... ~ 115
Country Papers
•W ater Harvesting in Sudan Arid Lands with Special Reference to Northern
Western Sudan
. M E. Abdel Rahman .................. '" ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...... 121
12. Soil Erosion Control, Agro-Forestry Management of Watersheds in Turkey
Dr. A. S. Birler. ..................................... , ............................................... ' ..... . 137 FOREWORD
13. Soil and Water Potentials and Conservation in Iran
Mr. N. Khazaei ... ....................... . ....................... . .................. 143
14. Forestry in Jordan
Mr. M Abu-Jafar. .............................................. " .................................. ,. 151
This Expert Consultation, jointly organized by the Ministry of Agriculture and
Agrarian Reform of Syria and the F AO Regional Office for the Near East, focused on
15. Tunisian Ex-perience in Water and Soils Management and Conservation (Arabic)
Mr. J. AZ FaZeh.. .. ............ ' ................ ,. .............................................. , .. . 163 "reviewing the latest available studies related to soil/water conservation, forestry and
range with the view of deVeloping an integrated management approach including the
16. Land Use and Water Resources for an Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral Management-Lebanon socio-e~onomic dimension, particularly in fragile eco-systems".
Mr. G. Akl... ..... ' .................................. " ............................................... , ...... 171
Several projects implemented in the Near East Region covered the main aspects
17. Syrian Country Report of soil and water conservation and management of agro-sylvo-pastoral system.
Dr. A. Dcrwood Unfortunately, agricultural development plans, specially in fragile eco-systems, are to a
Mr. M KCIff'a ... ..' ........ -....... -, .............. ' .... -, .......................... . 179 great extent sectoral, often uncoordinated and with limited efforts directed towards socio
economic aspects without the involvement of local communities. In order to achieve a
m. Annexes sustainable development of these areas an integrated approach is needed, this was the
immediate objective of this Expert Consultation.
Annex 1 : List of Participants ................................................................. , ... . 183
Annex 2: Agenda. . ...................................................... . 187 There is a growing consensus that only an holistic approach could provide a
strategy and a plan of action for natural resources management and conservation
Annex 3: Opening Address by the FAO Representative, M. Sinaceur ........................ 189
conducive 10 sustainable development of marginal areas. The attainment of such
integrated management is dependent on the political commitment and the cooperation of
stakeholders within the rural sector. The challenge now is to develop suggestions aimed
at enhancing collaboration among countries, regional and international organizations;
promoting regional activities, and identifying ways for further follow-up.
The findings and recommendations of the Consultation will be presented to the
Regional Commission on Land and Water Use in the Near East, as well as to the Near
East Forestry Commission highlighting the technical, socio-economic and other
dimensions of integrated management of fragile eco-systems in the Region. It is hoped
that the contents, conclusions and recommendations will help fostering and orienting
mUlti-disciplinary approaches of agro-sylvo-pastoral systems as an iAtegral part of
national agricultural and water policies in the countries of the region. The
of coordinated regional activities and a better inter-agency resource
_~U'JVlUL.'1L""U, as a result of this Expert Consultation, is anticipated and encouraged.
iii
ii
SUMMARY REPORT
1. Sponsors
The "Expert Consultation on Integrated Management of Land and Water within an Agro-Sylvo
Pastoral System" was held in Safita, Syria (Cham Safita Palace Hotel) during the period 16-18 June 1997.
The Consultation was jointly organized by the Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform of Syria and
the FAD Regional Dffice for the Near East, RNE, Cairo, Egypt.
2. Proceedings of the Expert Consultation
• The Consultation was attended by Experts from Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, and
Turkey as well as by ACSAD, ADAD, ICARDA, the Inter-Islamic Network on Water Resources
Development and Management (INWRDAM), FAD Representation in Syria, and F ADIRNE. (List of
participants, Annex I).
• The Consultation was inaugurated by His Excellency Asaad Moustafa, Minister for Agriculture and
Agrarian Reform in Syria, who welcomed the participants and commended FAD for selecting such
important top ics to the Region for discussion. The meeting was also addressed by Dr F. AJ-Ahmad,
Director of Forestry at the Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform in Syria, and by Mr M. M.
Sinaceur, FAD Representative in Syria (Annexes 3 and 4).
• The Consultation included 2 days of technical sessions and one day field trip in the Tartous district
during whIch the state of preventive measures on soil and water conservation and the management of
agro-sylvo-pastoral Systems were presented and lively discussed. Many issues were discussed and
specIal reference was made for consolidating an integrated management approach including the socio
econonuc dunenSlon. panJcularly in fragile eco-systems (Agenda, Annex 2).
• A total of 17 papers were presented including the 7 country papers focusing on the three main topics of
the Consultation So,l conservation measures, water harvesting and supplementary irrigation, and
integrated management of agro-sylvo-pastoral systems.
3. Conclusions and Rrcommendations
In ligbt of the technical documents presented by the participants, from the invited countries oft he Near
East Regioo, and by the resource persons 00 specific topics related to soils and water management, forestry
and range; as well as the group discussions which fullowed the technical sessioos, the recommendations,
thereunder, were adopted by the assembled experts.
Taking into coosideratioo the recommendatioos agreed upon during FAD statutory bodies meetings held in
1996: the 23rd FAD Regiooal Cooference (Morocco), the 12th Sessioo of the Near East Forestry
Commissioo (Egypt) and the 12th Sessioo oft he Regiooal Commissioo 00 Land and Water Use in the Near
East (Lebanoo), the Coosultatioo unanimously agreed 00 the importance of adopting an integrated
manageInent approach, particularly in fragile eco-systerns and, therefor, is calling upoo natiooal governments
~
adopt ~ holistic management approach taking into consideration all inter-related physical
. elements: soils, water, range, pasture and forestry as well as the socio -economic aspects;
'~ maximum community participation, including WOIIlfn and youth in all phases of(l) p1anning,(2)
Illlplementatioo, (3) managemeot of conservatioo projects, and (4) in the mooitoring and evaluation of
·relevant schemes in order to ensure their sustainability;
iv
- give due attention to the support of small fanners, pastoralist and herdsmen fur ensuring food security of • Recognizing that controlling soil erosion is a national, as well as a regional objective contributing to the
these rural communities; and global efforts for combating desertification, the Consultation recommends that:
- consider the multi-disciplinary approach of agro-sylvo-pastoral systems as an integral part of any national _ governments, international organisations and concerned agencies support national efforts by providing
agncultural and water policies in arid and semi-arid countries. attractive incentives to funners who adopt soil conservation measures.
• Reviewing results achieved in various countries, the Consultation noted that: • Recognizing that the lack of defined policies fur land tenure is an obstacle to integrated development, the
- rr:=ch has been carried out and results have been achieved in several countries and adequate knowledge Consultation ca1Is upon governments to:
eXIsts on water harvestmg techniques and soil conservation practices with various techniques and -give due attention for settling land tenure issues in the near future according to the specific conditions of each
technolC>gles bemg successfully adopted and improved throughout the Region.
country.
- a large gap, however, remains between the availability of technologies and the adoption! efi'ective
management of these technologies by fanners. • Realising the fact that the Near East Region is rich in historical and traditional agro-sylvo-pastoral systems as
well as water harvesting practices, the Consultation recommends that:
The ConsUltation. therefore. recommends that: ~i\'o-pastoral systems be documented in an effurt to rehabilitate and utilise their potential; and
- greater regional co-operation be ~blished to exchange research and development infurmation in resources _ management guidelines fur different agro-sylvo-pastoral systems be developed in order to provide
management practices; informatJoo 00 adequate land and water conservation practices, as well as other components, fur ensuring
- greater emphasis should be given to the process of successful transfer oft echnologies to the :fanner through
tf¥nn sustamable benefit.
g and extension with emphasis on the involvement/participation of :fanners in all conservation
actlVlDes from the early stages of planning through the implementation process; and • Expen= III some developing countries indicates that the application of soil and water conservation
- due attentlen should be given to the orientation of research to stress the adaptive-type of research and to techruques and water harvesting practices were implemented over the years. However, sustainabi1ity oft hese
draw. from local well-adapted and tested technologies, with emphasis en low-rost and simple management systems by L-md users IS very often constrained The Consultation therefure recommends that policies ought to
techniques.
be adopted to
-proVIde appropnate subsidies to ensure long term continuity of introduced practices and established
• Recognizing that the different agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions require different approaches;
systems.
and that. the . understanding of social structure, traditional institutions and domestic regulations oft he rural -conurut ad<.'quate funds for establishing these systems after appropriate measures are taken by
commUIut!es ill general, and of pastoral groups in particu1ar is weak, the Consultation recommends that: governments and local coinmunities to ensure sustainability mainly by developing simple and
- In funnu1ating development plans of soillwater/agro-sylvo-pastoral schemes, the socio-economic dimension praCtIcal technology packages with a clear economic immediate benefit to the fanner, as a requisite
should . be the comer stone. of governmental policies aiming at income generation., offering feasible
for successful technology transfer.
econonuc alternatives, allevJatmg poverty, empowering women and youth role;
- coordinated effurts should be strmgthened among national institutions, and oriented to supporting studies
00 !be social struct:ur<, iLstitutions and national regulations; and
- a Central Advisory Board be created at the national level , involving local communities, stakeholders and
the pnvate sector fur the operation., maintenance and evaluation of relevant schemes.
• Reca1Iing the recommen~ons made. at the ~A O " Expert Consultatien on Water Harvesting fur Improved
Agricultural .Producooo held ill Cairo (1993), the present Consultation noted that many of the
recommendations are still valid while some progress has been made on others. For example, ICARDA has
c;stablished a netwolk en water harvesting fur nine countries from the ~on through the regional project
On-Farm Water Husbandry in WANA" and another project on us~ "Remote Sensing and GISin
Determmmg Appropriate Sites and Methods of Water Harvesting" in Syria. The Consu1tati therefu
recommends~ on., re
- greater. collaboration between ~oos/agencies should be established with regards to these projects fur
better mter-agency resource mobilization., complementarily and efficiency;
- full=: up co~ including F AO, ICARDA, AOAD, ACSAD and other concerned institutions to take
part m the exIStIng netwolk and fur the development of region!I projects on using modem technologies in
water harvesting planning and development based on the wolk already accomplished; and
- :'A O, IC~A, as. well as other instituti~ are called upon to join effurts in conducting the proposed
'F A~ Roving Seminar" on water harvesting and supplemental irrigation fur the enhancement of the
capaCIty ofn ational programmes in these fields.
v vi
Expert Consultation on Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral System
MARGINAL AND FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS
PROBLEMS AND MANAGEMENT
1. THE CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM FRAGILITY
1.1 Drylands
Fragility of ecosystems often relates to inherent attributes that make them vulnerable to
irrepar!lble damage if stressed. Dryland ecosystems represent one class of fragility that relates
to the following natural attributes:
• limited water resources (low rainfall), year-to-year variable (recurrent incidents of
drought), and rainfall is confined to a season;
• thin plant cover (does not afford effective protection against erosion), low bio-productivity
(carrying capacity limited);
• plant growth with notable seasonal variation, soil devoid of protective plant cover during
the dry season;
• skeletal soil (surface deposits show little development), with low content of organic carbon
(litter actively oxidized at surface and not incorporated in A horizon);
• physico-geo-chemical processes may form surface crusts (in stabilized deposits), sub
surface carbonate/sulphate-rich layers, or hardpans;
• bio-geo-chemical processes within the ecosystem retain nutrients within above-ground
biomass (perennating parts of plants) and not in the soil (Ayyad et al., 1985), removal of
plant growth deprives the ecosystem of its stock of nutrients;
• recurrent drought (years with below-average rainfall) and desiccation (prolonged drought
of several successive years desiccation: UNSO, 1992) represent acute ecological stress;
• many species of plants and animals are at the limits of their temperature ranges, spells of
higher temperature or incidents of cold temperature (frost) may cause widespread damage
to these organisms; and
• locust raids recur and may have destructive impacts on dryland vegetation.
1.2 Highlands
Highlands with their slopes, precIpIce and ravines represent fragile ecosystems
worldwide. This relates to the intensity of run-off processes and the active erosive powers
associated with them. In humid territories, growth of tree formations (natural or planted) can
reduce this erosive power. Deforestation causes widespread erosion. Highlands in humid
Marginal and Fragile Ecosystems: Problems andManagement 2 Expert Consultation on Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral System 3
territories (annual rainfall more than 1000 mm) in Morocco, Tunisia, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, exploitation of mineral and renewable resources, and attractiveness to tourists. The
Iran and Southern Sudan face these hazards of ecological degradation. vulnerability of island biota (including indigenous humans) to exotic pests is a matter of special
concern (Brookfield, 1980). The Socotra Island in Yemen has very special and particularly
In dryland territories vegetation cover of highlands is often thin and ~ay onlY'p'artly interesting flora including numerous endemic species, and deserves special conservation
impede the erosive· powers of run-off. Coastal mountain ranges may receive addinonal measures. Coral islands are often low-lying and hence susceptible to oceanic surges and would
orographic precipitation, and plant cover is less austere (mountain oases, see: Troll, 1935; be particularly vulnerable to likely rise in sea level in consequence of global warming.
Kassas 1956). Extensive soil conservation structures (contour terraces, bunds, etc.) and
plantations (grass stripes, tree lines, etc.) are necessary to sustain productive plant growth. 2. THE CONCEPT OF ARIDITY
These are labour intensive works and their maintenance requires sustained management. The
highlands of Yemen provide the example of such soil-and-water conser:'ation terraces ~at Aridity may be conceived as "a state of imbalance between limited water resources and
reach considerable altitudes. Neglect of these elaborate structures results ill land degradanon excessive water expenditure". Temporary aridity may occur in all climatic regions when
(desertification), Kates et al., (1977). incidents of rainfall failure happen. But aridity is a feature of world drylands where water
deficit -prevails during all the year (extremely arid) or during most of the year (arid and semi
Highlands in the NE countries are features of landscape in: coastal Liby~ coastal arid). Aridity m.ay be assessed on bases of (i) climatic variables (aridity index), or (ii) measure
mountains of the Red Sea (Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Saudi Arabia), coastal mountams of the of days during which water balance allows plant growth (growing season).
Arab Sea (Oman) and Taurus mountains in Turkey.
Low rainfall is the most obvious climatic feature related to aridity, but it is the
1.3 Drainage Systems (Wadis) effectiveness of rainfall (P) that matters: rainfall associated with low temperature, high
humidity and low evaporation potential is more effective than that associated with high
Landforms in dryland territories include rolling plains, plateaus, hills and other temperature. low humidity and hence high potential evapotranspiration (PET). Several
physiographic units of dryland erosion cycle, control water redistribution: run-off water formulae have been proposed to calculate aridity index (AI), the simplest is the ratio PIPET.
collects in sites with levels lower than the surrounding territories (Cotton, 1947). It has been Values of less than I indicate a degree of moisture deficit. The World Atlas ofD esertification
suggested (Monod, 1954) that arid lands may be classified into: (i) run-off deserts (extremely (UNEP. 199~) sets the limits of world drylands as:
arid) where perennial plant growth is confined to run-off collecting sites (contracte) and (ii)
rainfall deserts (arid) where perennial plant growth, though richer in run-off favoured sites, is I. Hyper ·and PIPET<0.05
widespread (diffuse). These topographic peculiarities have been utilized by dryland inhabit~ts:
territories of the Near East countries bear relics of elaborate systems of run-offfarmmg 2. Arid 0.05~IPET<0.20
especially during the Greco-Roman times (Evenari et al., 1971; Kassas, 1972). This has been
(annual precipitation 200 mm in winter rainfall territories and 300 mm
elaborated in recent times into water harvesting farming.
in summer rainfall territories)
Extensive drainage systems (wadis, khors, etc.) that collect and contain run-off water
3. Semi-arid 0.02~IPET<0.50
are features of dryland landscape. Each system is fed by an often extensive catchment area;
wadis may be transformed into ephemeral water flows (torrents) after incidents of cloudbursts. (annual precipitation 500 mm in winter rainfall territories and 800 mm
These torrents are often mighty and destructive (one of the natural hazards of arid lands).
in summer rainfall territories)
History of land use in drylands include examples of constructions ( dams) that were meant to
store parts of these water flows, e.g. Sad Maareb in Yemen, Sad El-Kafara (Wadi Garawi) in 4. Dry sub-humid 0.5~IPET<0.65 •
Egypt. Recent projects of building reservoirs in drylands to tap these spates of water flow met
5. Humid >0.65 PIPET
limited success, reservoirs soon silted and their capacity reduced. Here, vulnerability relates to
the accidental nature of rainfall (cloudbursts), the efficiency of the naked terrain in collecting
run-off water and transforming it into rivers that are short-lived and destructive. Ecological According to these categories, the world total drylands comprise 47.2% of the world land area:
management that harness the natural alluvial-depositional processes may render the system less 7.5% hyper-arid, 12.1% arid, 17.7% semi-arid, and 9.9% dry sub-humid. Aridity is particularly
vulnerable (I<'assas and Imam, 1954). widespread in the Near East Region. Land areas in North Af'rtca, for instance, comprise:
1.4 Islands 385.4 million ha (70.6%) hvoer-arid
t---. 98.1 million ha (18.1%) arid
There are numerous inhabited or not inhabited islands in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden,
37.4 million ha (6.9%) semi-arid
the Arabian Sea and the Arabian Gulf These islands are fragile systems. Fragility relates to:
15.1 million ha (2.8%) dry sub-humid
small size, exposure to oceanic storms and other natural disasters, isolated biota, excessive 9.3 million ha (i. 7%") humid
, 1i 5
Marginal and Fragile Ecosystems: Problems andManagement 4 Expert Consultation on Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral System
encouraging and promoting popular participation and environmental education, focusing
F AO adopts as basis for defining and classifYing drylands, the number of days during •
which plant growth may proceed. Territories with less than 120 growing days per year are on desertification control and management of the effect of drought.
drylands: arid lands with a growing period of up to 74 days, semi-arid lands with 75-119 days
. . thr . art ts· monitoring and assessment
growing period. FAOIRNE (1994) adds, "Dryland climates are characterized by low and highly These six programmes compnse ee mam comp men. . g
variable rainfall levels, and these are reflected in limited and uncertain levels of crop and (programme A), management of corrective actions (progr~es B, C and E), a.r:~ supportm
livestock production". This perception of dryland relates to land bioproductivity that is mainly measures including research, education, national capabilitIes, resource mobilizatlo~ etcf
dependent on volume and season of rainfall. Water is the limiting factor for plant growth in (programmes A and F). These six programme areas provide guidelines .~or elabor~tlOn 0
arid ,territories. national plans of action to comprise (i) management ~f drought, ~d (ll) c~mbatmg land
degradation. It is essential that national action plans be m~orporated m the natIOnal plans f~r
3. MANAGEMENT OF FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS development and hence be provided with its due share of natIonal resources to be supported y
bilateral and multilateral aid resources.
3.1 Agenda 21
3.2 'Combating Desertification
Fragile ecosystems have two attributes in common: (i) they are prone to recurrent
natural hazards (e.g. recurrent drought in drylands), and (ii) their ecological resilience is limited The International Convention to Combat Desertification (1994), now rat~ed and the
(use beyond inherent carrying capacity causes degradation, e.g., desertification). Management first conference of parties is due to convene in Septembe; 19~7, calls ~pon co~~es men~eed
need$ to be based on ecological grounds for use to be sustainable, and needs to incorporate a by recurrent drought and desertification to elaborate . 'National A~on Plans and proVldes
mechanism for management of hazards. guidelines for these plans National plans of action requrre the establishment .~d developme.nt
of national mechanisms and institutions for management, and the proVlslon of financtal
As FAO (1993) states, ''Desertification should be viewed as a breakdown of the fragile resources for implementation.
balance that allowed plant, human and animal life to develop in arid, semi-arid and dry sub
Action programmes for combating desertification embrace four classes ofinter-relate.d
humid zones. This breakdown of the equilibrium and of the physical, chemical and biological
ater
processes that sustain it, represents the start of a process of self destruction for all elements of actions (i) prt'I'I!~ru\'f! measures that ensure that use of . land-and-v.: resource~ IS
the life system. Thus soil vulnerability to wind and water erosion, the lowering of the water sustainable these are conserVation measures that would protect the product1ve system ag~st
table, the impairment of the natural regeneration of vegetation, the chemical degradation of soil excessive: ~sc:. (ii) correctrw measures that redress partly damaged land system and restore Its
- themselves all immediate results of desertification - worsen the situation. Desertification produCtl\ltY (iii) rehabliIlalion measures that aim at reclaiming lost (severely. damaged) lan~
feeds on itself'. (iv) dt.\"t'/,;;menr of na/llml resources of dry/ands including extremely and lands (natur
desertS). ttus would include non-agricultural land use. These action pro~es shoul~ be set
Chapter 12 of agenda 21 (managing fragile ecosystems: combating desertification and within national land-use plans with boundary limits based on land cap.ability.: land SUIted for
drought), UNCED, 1992, prescribes and provides detailed guidelines for six principal pasture should not be transformed to farmland, this would exacerbate therr fragility.
programme areas:
Anti-desertification projects often entail gestation periods that are I~nge: than those
..
strengthening the knowledge base and developing information and monitoring systems for usually invoh'ed in development schemes. Cost-effectiveness of these p.roJ~cts IS often less
regions prone to desertification and drought; competiti\'e on fiscal basis. Schemes that aim at checking land degr~atI~n m pasture~an~s,
rainfed farmlands, and irrigated agricultural lands; at sand-dune st~ilizatlOn; at ~stablishing
large-scale green belts; at introducing soil and water conservallon systems. m resource
• ~ combating land degradation through, inter alia, intensified soil conservation and
management; or at reclaiming new territories in drylan~s are apt to be costly. This means that
reforestation activities;
programmes for combating desertification require finanCial support.
" developing and strengthening integrated development programmes for eradication of
The UN Plan of Action to combat Desertification (UNCOD, 1977), the A?enda 21
poverty and promotion of alternative livelihood systems in areas prone to desertification;
(UNCED, 1992) and the Desertificatio~ Convention (1994) underline.the need for regtonal and
.. international collaborative programmes of action to support natIonal endeav.ours. ~ese
developing comprehensive anti-desertification programmes and integrating them into
international documents envisage a variety of mechanisms for supporting inte.rnatIonal act10ns
national development plans and national environmental planning;
and for providing technical and financial assistance to national and regional act10n plans.
" developing comprehensive drought preparedness and drought-relief schemes, including Action programmes for combating desertification, and for combating degradation ~f all
self-help arrangement, for drought-prone areas and designing programmes to cope with
types of fragile ecosystems, should be based on a m~ageme~t pac~e that. combm~:
environmental refugees; and
government control (legal instruments), government assIstance (mcluding fin~Clai suppo )
and guidance (land-use policies), supportive national development schemes (railways, roads,
, ,
,
, " Marginal and Fragile Ecosystems: Problems and Management 6 Expert Consultation on Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral System 7
water conservation projects), application of sound technologies and scientific knowledge. In (Hulrn d Kelly 1993). Drought is an aspect of inter-annual variations that is a usual
attribu~e a::f 10w-r~aIl
short, development of natural resources within the framework of an ecologically-sound land climate, but protracted drought (desiccation) may herald a degree of
use policy and ensuring positive participation of people concerned. The latter is a cardinal climate change.
element, and F AO (I993) sets as "the main guiding principle in sustainable development and
I !' combating desertification is the promotion of voluntary and responsible popular participation", A case study on Syria (Kassas, 1988) may be briefly pres~nted to illustrate elements of
through measures that are: drought management. A series of years with below-average rainfall (l959-1961)caus~d the
loss of about 50% of the sheep livestock-figures below-in the rangeland area (badla: and and
.. legislative (rights and duties linked to the use ofland resources, access to property and semi-arid territories):
'usufruct, association and organizational rights);
1958 5 912000
.. economic (working with markets, prices, access to credit and the means of production,
1959 4715000
transport and storage infrastructure);
.. 1960 3649000
social (access to education and training, improved public health, support for rural
1961 2901000
organizations sensitizing the population to their roles);
.. In lean years, relief and aid were provided by the Government, FAO, WFP, etc. This
ifJStitutlonal (decentralization, national and local mechanisms for rural development, was a recurrent hazard and a new scheme assisted by F AO and World Bank was eventual!!'
combating desertification, etc.). established. It depended on a combination of (i) revival of an ol~ reser::'~ system.(herna), (n)
re-formulating grazing rights of bedouin tribes to .bedo~ coopera~lves, (m) ~colog:tcally s~u~~
3.3 Management of Drought and socially accepted management operations mcluding a credit mechanism that proVld
support in lean (drought) years. During 1967-1980 the following elements were established:
Drought is generally perceived as the incidence of below average availability of natural
water Below average has a physical meaning (below long-term normal) and a societal aspect • Hema cooperatn'eS' 22 sheep and range cooperatives and 10 dairy coope:atives supported
(below the expected volume that would satisfy the needs of agriculture, livestock and domestic by a nerwork of feed warehouses (with total capacity of 180000 metnc tons) that made
use) Manifestations include: annual rainfall less than normal, reduced river flow, reduced feed materials available during drought.
groundwater availability. Incidents of droUght are natural hazards.
• Government centreS' eight expen.m enta I , tram..m g and demonstration centres provided
Management of drought, similar to management of other natural hazards, comprises extension and technical support to the cooperatives.
three principal elements: an early warning (forecast) mechanistn, societal preparedness (society
organized and drilled to face the event), and an enabling mechanism that would provide • Restoration of ....a ter clstems: 2000 neglected cisterns (dating back to Roman times) were
support and relief to menaced communities. Early warning system is a key element (Wilhite, cleared and pro~;ded water storage and reserve.
1996) FA O and WMO have programmes that provide countries with information derived from
meteo-satellite imagery that could be used for rainfall forecast. US-AID initiated a Famine • National Feed Revolving Fund (NFRF): a credit mechanism that ~~pported the whole
Early Warning System (FEWS) project for Afiica. National early warning systems were made operation; it received $ 4.5 million from the Government and $ 11. . 5 million from the wor;~
available through F AO assistance in a few countries of Afiica (e.g. Ethiopia). Bank, provided short-tern low-interest loans to the cooperatIves and through them
members.
A national early warning systetn, that could provide early forecast of weather
perturbations including incidents of drought (or flood), needs to be linked to a world-wide With this packet of instruments, the Syrian steppe rangelands, their livestocks and the~
system of climate information. A long term (several months) forecast will depend on the tele pastoralist communities are better able to withstand spells of drought.. The ~ssence o~~s
connection between world climate anomalies, that is, likely correspondence between the drought management packet is insurance against natural hazard; insurance IS not JUst PthroVl~g
phenomena of ENSO (including surface sea temperature in Southern Pacific and in the compensan. on for lo~s, I. t I.S an enab ling mech ani sm that pro Vl'de.s su.pp ort throug.h out e cn. sls
Southern Oceans) and rainfall in East Afiica and other parts of the world, and the likely of drought. Societal reorganization (establishment of cooperanves) IS an effe~tIve mechamsm
correspondence between the climatic processes in North Atlantic and those in the Indian Ocean for sOC.i etal preparedness and coI eIcb'v e actJ.. on. An early warning mechanism would have
(Glantz et aI, 1991).
completed the elements of the system.
Distinction is made between drought (1-2 years with below average rainfall) and Recent years with above-average rainfall may hav~ enticed people to transform parts of
desiccation (dry period lasting for a decade or more), UNSO, 1992. The often quoted example ..• these rangelands into rain-fed farming. This will have detn.mental consequences.
is the failure of rainfall in the Sahel region (Afiica): for the 25 year period 1965-1990 rainfall
decline, as compared with the long-term average (1901-1992), was between 20 and 40%