Exegesis and Exposition of Titus 2:12 Titus 2:11 Titus 2:11 For the grace of God has appeared ...

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Exegesis and Exposition of Titus 2:12

Titus 2:11

Titus 2:11 For the grace of God has appeared, bringing salvation to all
men. (NASB95)
This verse is composed of the following: (1) third person singular aorist passive
indicative form of the verb epiphainomai (ἐπιφαίνοµαι), “has appeared” (2)
conjunction gar (γάρ), “for” (3) articular nominative feminine singular form of the
noun charis (χάρις), “the grace” (4) articular genitive masculine singular form of
the noun theos (θεός), “God” (5) nominative feminine singular form of the
adjective sōtērios (σωτήριος), “bringing salvation” (6) dative masculine plural
form of the adjective pas (πᾶς), “all” (7) dative masculine plural form of the noun
anthropos (ἄνθρωπος), “men.”

Gar

The post-positive conjunction gar is causal meaning that it is introducing a
statement which presents the reason for Paul’s previous instructions recorded in
Titus 2:2-10.

Classical Usage of Charis

Archbishop Trench writes of charis, “It refers to the heart or essence of the
Greek mind...charis also referred to the presence of grace or beauty, which were
the most joy-inspiring of all qualities for the Greek” (Synonyms of the New
Testament, page 181).
Charis is first of all that property that produces joy in its hearers or beholders. It
also referred to the presence of grace or beauty, which were the most joy inspiring
of all qualities for the Greek.
Over a period of time, charis came to refer to grace that embodied and
expressed itself in gracious actions toward objects, not to favor in the sense of
beauty. The usage of the word evolved over a period of time in Greek.
The noun charis in classical Greek initially referred to grace and beauty as
qualities and then to gracious persons or actions, beautiful thoughts or speeches. It
referred to grace, which expressed itself in gracious actions toward people or
things such as favors.
Charis in the objective sense meant “outward grace or favor, beauty of
persons.” In the subjective sense, the word meant “grace or favor felt, whether on
the part of the doer or the receiver.” For the doer, charis meant, “grace, kindness
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for or towards someone,” and for the receiver, it meant “a sense of favor received,
thankfulness, gratitude.”
The word was also used for a favor done or returned and it was also used of
women who gave sexual favors to men and also referred to “gratification and
delight” in or from a thing. Charis not only designated both the attitude of the gods
but also that of men such as a rulers favor. In classical literature, charis is the favor
of the gods in Aeschylus’s works Agamemnon 182, 581).
Trench states “charis implied a favor that was freely done without claim or
expectation of return.” (Synonyms of the New Testament, page 181 and 182).
The Greeks used the word in reference to a favor done by one Greek to another
out of sheer generosity and with no expectation of payment in return or no
expectation of reward. Charis referred to giving with no strings attached.
Wuest writes, “The Greek word (charis) referred to an action that was beyond
the ordinary course of what might be expected, and was therefore commendable”
(Word Studies in the Greek New Testament, volume 2, page 29).
Aristotle uses charis in this same manner, he writes, “Let charis be that quality
by which he who has it is said to render favor (charin) to one who is in need, not in
return for anything, nor that anything be given to him who renders it, but that
something be given to that one in need” (Rhetorica 2.7).
Therefore, the basic fundamental definition of charis in classical Greek includes
the ideas of “grace, an undeserved favor, kindness, goodness, beauty, gratitude,
thankfulness, delight, and pleasure.”
In the Hellenistic period, charis was a term for demonstrations of a ruler's
favor. The word was mainly used in the plural for “gifts.” In Hellenism, to show
charis to people came to suggest favoritism. It was also used for the showing of
grace in court.
Euripides used it for the power of love (Hipp. 527). Charis also referred to
supernatural power, which flowed from the gods above. It referred to a spell or
demonic force that affects human life with supernatural influences.

Septuagint Usage of Charis

The Greek noun charis is used to translate the following Hebrew words in the
Septuagint: (1) gedhullah, “greatness, dignity; chalaq, “flattering”; (2) chesedh,
“kindness, steadfast love, mercy, grace”; (3) racham, “compassion, mercy”; (4)
ratson, “what is acceptable, favor.”
The most frequent equivalent used in the Septuagint is the noun chen, “grace,
favor, inclination,” which is employed 61 times. Chen and chesedh are the most
important of these words. Chen means “favor, delight, grace.” It was particularly
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employed when favor was shown or asked without conditions or stipulations
(Genesis 6:8).
The noun chesedh is used often to describe the Lord (Ex.15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7;
Num. 14:18-19; Deut. 5:10; 7:9, 12; 2 Chron 20:21; Ezra 3:11; Ps. 100:3; 106:1;
118:2-3). The word denotes “kindness, goodness, favor, mercy, grace” and is
connected to the Lord's faithfulness in His covenant relationship with His people
Israel. The terms grace and covenant are related in the Old Testament. Chesedh
refers to the grace policy of God towards His covenant relationship with Israel. In
this relationship, He exercises faithfulness, mercy and compassion towards sinners
through the forgiveness of sins based upon the Lord Jesus Christ's sacrifice on the
Cross, which was yet future in the Old Testament and was portrayed in the
Levitical animal sacrifices.
Chesedh describes God’s attitude towards His covenant people Israel. God’s
faithfulness is manifested in His gracious, merciful acts towards His people who
have been apostasy. His deliverance of His people demonstrates that God’s grace is
inherent in the covenant relationship.
Girdlestone discusses grace in the Old Testament, he writes, “Grace is the free
bestowal of kindness on one who has neither claim on our bounty, nor adequate
compensation to make for it...An act done with any expectation of a return from
the object on which it is wrought, or one that is meted out as a matter of justice,
recompense, or reward, is not an act of grace...In the great proportion of passages
in which the word grace is found in the New Testament, it signifies the unmerited
operation of God in the heart of man, effected through the agency of the Holy
Spirit. We have gradually come to speak of grace as an inherent quality in man,
just as we talk of gifts; whereas it is in reality the communication of Divine
goodness by the inworking of the Spirit and through the medium of Him who is
‘full of grace and truth’” (Girdlestone’s Synonyms of the Old Testament, pages
125-126).
Grace is expressed through mercy and compassion. The Hebrew term racham,
“compassion, mercy” denotes grace, whose basis rests upon a close relationship
between the giver and the recipient of grace (Exodus 22:19; Psalm 116:5).

New Testament Usage of Charis

God’s grace is the main theme of the Greek New Testament. Charis is found
approximately 155 times in the New Testament. It is found mostly in the Pauline
corpus where it occurs approximately 100 times.
The word occupies a special place in the salutations in the Greek New
Testament and final greetings. The word does not occur in Mark, Matthew, first
and third John and is used in the salutations of 1 Thessalonians and Philemon.
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Charis plays a crucial role in the New Testament’s presentation of God’s
relationship to mankind. The word does not always refer specifically to the
doctrine of grace for it can mean “thanks, thank-offering, to enjoy with thanks.”
In the Greek New Testament, it was elevated from referring to an earthly
benefit to referring to a heavenly one, from signifying the favor, grace and
goodness of man to man, to signifying the favor, grace and goodness of God to
man.
In New Testament usage charis denotes the grace of the worthy to the
unworthy, of the holy to the sinful. It had never had this meaning before, even in
the Septuagint, where the Hebrew word that approximate the meaning of charis in
the New Testament chesedh, which is not translated by charis (except in Esther
2:9) but usually be eleos.
The essence of charis in the Greek New Testament is that it is unearned and
unmerited. The concept of charis in the Greek New Testament is consistently
defined in terms of God’s gracious act of redemption that is found in the Person
and Finished Work of Christ on the Cross, which establishes the believer’s eternal
relationship with God. It is also defined in terms of God providing everything the
believer needs to experience and enjoy fellowship with Him.
Incorporated into the meaning of charis in the Greek New Testament is that the
believer is beneficiary of the love of each member of the Trinity. They are the
beneficiaries of the love of God before salvation in that the Trinity loved the entire
human race self-sacrificially and impersonally in that sinful mankind was
obnoxious to a holy God.
The believer after salvation is the object of the love of God since they possess
the life and righteousness of God through imputation at the moment of salvation.
God the Father’s divine provision for salvation is the impeccable unique Person
and finished work of Christ on the Cross and after salvation it is His Word and His
provision of the Spirit as the believer’s true teacher and mentor. Therefore, the
grace of God is God’s provision for salvation and a post-salvation relationship with
Him.
Moulton and Milligan have the following comments regarding charis, they
write, “The utmost we can attempt with this important word is to illustrate some of
its meanings from our sources with the view of showing how readily it lent itself to
the deeper Christian implications involved in its NT use. 1. ‘grace,’ ‘graciousness’:
OGIS 3839 (Commagene rescript—mid. i/b.c.) ἔργα χάριτος ἰδίας: cf Lk 4:22. 2.
‘favour’: P Leid Di. 11 (b.c. 162–161) (= I. p. 25, UPZ i. p. 231) περὶ µὲν οὖν
τούτων δοῖ σοι ὁ Σάραπις καὶ ἡ Ἶσις ἐπαφροδισί[α]ν χάριν µορφὴν πρὸς τὸν
βασιλέα καὶ τὴν βασίλισσαν, similarly ib. K10 (c. b.c. 99) (= I. p. 52), P Lips I.
10414 (ii/i b.c.) χάριν σοι ἔχω ἐφʼ αἷς γράφεις ἐπι[σ]τολαῖς, and ib.24, BGU I. 19i.
21 (a.d. 135) ἠξίου προσφυγεῖν τῇ χάριτι τοῦ θεοῦ ἐπιφανεστάτου Αὐτοκράτορος,
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ib. IV. 10855 (time of Marcus) κατὰ τὴν χάριν τοῦ θεοῦ Αἰλ[ί]ου Ἀντων[ε]ίνου
δύνονται ἔχειν τὸν τάφον, P Grenf II. 684 (a.d. 247) ὁµολογῶ χαρίζεσθ[αι] σοὶ
χάριτι ἀναφαιρέτῳ καὶ ἀµετανοήτῳ, P Oxy XIV. 166412 (iii/a.d.) τὰς γὰρ ἐντολάς
σου ἥδιστα ἔχων ὡς χάριτας λήµψοµαι, ‘for I shall be most pleased to accept your
commands as favours’ (Edd.), and P Fay 1368 (iv/a.d.) (= Ghedini p. 242) in which
the writer summons those whom he is addressing to return to their homes πρὸ τοῦ
τις ὑµᾶς ἐνέγκῃ· καὶ οὐκ ἔστιν οὐκέτι ἐν ὑµῖν χάρις, ‘before some one compels
them, and there is no longer favour extended to them’: cf. Lk 1:30, 2:52, Ac 2:47,
al. 3. ‘thanks,’ ‘gratitude’: P Oxy VII. 102118 (a.d. 54) διὸ πάντες ὀφείλοµεν . . .
θεοῖς πᾶσι ε̣ἰ̣δ̣έ̣ναι χάριτας, ‘therefore ought we all to give thanks to all the gods,’
notification of the accession of Nero, BGU II. 59613 (a.d. 84) τοῦτ[ο]̣ οὖν ποιήσας ̣
ἔσῃ µοι µεγάλην χάριταν (= -ιτα), P Oxy VI. 963 (ii/iii a.d.) χάριν δέ σοι οἶδα, p
685 µῆτερ, ἐπὶ τῇ σπουδῇ τοῦ καθεδραρίο̣υ (‘stool’), ἐκοµισάµην γὰρ αὐτό, and
the constantly recurring χάρις τοῖς θεοῖς, as in P Petr I. 292 (iii/b.c.) (=
Witkowski2, p. 30) χάρις τοῖς θε<ο>ῖς πολλή, εἰ ὑγιαίνεις, P Hib I. 796 (c. b.c.
260) εἰ ἔρρωσαι . . . εἴ<η> ἂν ὡς ἐγὼ θέλω καὶ τοῖς θεοῖς πολλὴ χά[ρι]ς, ‘if you are
well, it would be as I wish, and much gratitude would be due to the gods’ (Edd.),
BGU III. 8436 (i/ii a.d.) χάρις τοῖς θεοῖς ἱκάµ[ην εἰς] Ἀλεξανδρίαν, P Fay 12416
(ii/a.d.) τοῖ[ς] θ[̣ εο]ῖ[ς] ἐ̣σ̣τ[̣ ι]ν ̣ χ̣άρις ὅτι οὐδεµία ἐστὶν πρόληµψις ἡµεῖν
γεγενηµένη, ‘thank heaven, there is no preconceived principle on our part’ (Edd.),
PSI I. 946 (ii/a.d.) θεοῖς δὲ χάρις ὅτι ἤρεσε καὶ τῷ παιδὶ ἡ ποδίς, καὶ προσεδρεύει
ἰς τὰ µαθήµατα, P Giss I. 176 (time of Hadrian) (= Chrest. I. p. 566) χάρις τοῖς
θεοῖς πᾶσι ὅτι σε διαφυλάσσουσι ἀπρόσκοπον, and the Christian P Oxy VI. 9396
(iv/a.d.), where a servant writes to his master regarding the illness of his mistress,
εἴη διὰ παντὸς ἡµᾶς χάριτας ὁµο[λογοῦντα]ς διατελεῖν ὅτι ἡµῖν ἵλεως ἐγένετο . .
διασώσας ἡµῖν [τὴν ἡµῶν] κύριαν, ‘may it be granted us to continue for ever to
acknowledge our thanks to Him because He was gracious to us by preserving for
us our mistress’ (Edd.): cf. Lk 17:9, Rom 6:17, 1 Tim 1:12, 2 Tim 1:3, Heb 12:28,
al. See also Epict. iv. iv. 7 τότε καὶ ἐγὼ ἡµάρτανον νῦν δʼ οὐκέτι, χάρις τῷ Θεῷ,
‘then I too was faulty, but, thanks to God, not now’ (cited by Sharp, p. 10), and for
the χάρις ascribed to the Emperors, cf. Syll 365 (= 3 798)7ff. (a.d. 37) τῆς
ἀθανάτου χάριτος . . . θεῶν δὲ χάριτες τούτῳ διαφέρουσιν ἀνθρωπίνων διαδοχῶν,
ᾧ ἢ νυκτὸς ἥλιος καὶ τὸ ἄφθαρτον θνητῆς φύσεως—said of Caligula! Other exx.
are cited by Wendland in ZNTW v. (1904), p. 345 n2. 4. We may note one or two
prepositional phrases—P Par 63 (b.c. 164) (= P Petr III. p. 22) διὰ χάρειν, “through
favouritism” (Mahaffy), BGU IV. 113516 (b.c. 10) κα]τ̣ὰ χάριν̣, P Oxy XIV. 16726
(a.d. 37–41) µετὰ χάριτος, with reference to a profitable sale of wine, almost =
µετὰ χαρᾶς, ‘with joy’ (see Olsson, p. 78), ib. IX. 11885 (a.d. 13) στοχα(σάµενος)
τ̣οῦ µηδ(ὲν) ἀγνοηθῆναι µηδὲ πρὸς χά(ριν) οἰκονοµηθ(ῆναι), ‘making it your aim
that nothing be concealed or done by favour’ (Ed.). 5. The favourite Pauline
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greeting χάρις καὶ εἰρήνη may have been suggested by the union of the ordinary
Greek and Hebrew forms of salutation, but both are deepened and spiritualized,
χαίρειν (cf. Ac 15:23, 23:26, Jas 1:1) giving place to χάρις, and εἰρήνη (cf. Ezra
4:17, Dan 4:1) pointing to the harmony restored between God and man (cf. Jn
14:27). See further Hort 1 Pet. p. 25f., and the discussion on the Apostolic Greeting
by F. Zimmer in Luthardt’s Zeitschrift 1886, p. 443ff. Reference should be made to
the Note “On the meanings of χάρις and χαριτοῦν” in Robinson Eph. p. 221ff., and
to the exhaustive monograph ‘Charis. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des ältesten
Christentums’ by G. P. von Wetter (Leipzig, 1913).1
The New Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon: (1) Prop. that which affords joy,
pleasure, delight, sweetness, charm, loveliness (2) Good-will, lovingkindness,
favor (3) Attends and assists one (4) Used of the kindness of a master towards his
inferiors or servants, and so especially of God towards men (5) Used of the
merciful kindness by which God, exerting His holy influence upon souls, turns
them to Christ, keeps, strengthens, increases them in Christian faith, knowledge,
affection, and kindles them to the exercise of Christian virtues (6) The grace of
God promoting the progress and blessings of the Christian religion; sustaining and
aiding the efforts of the men who labor for the cause of Christ; assisting and
strengthening his followers and ministers to bear their troubles (7) What is due to
grace; the spiritual condition of one governed by the power of divine grace; a token
or proof of grace; a gift of grace; benefaction, bounty; the aid or succor of divine
grace; of the various blessings of Christ experienced by souls; capacity and ability
due to the grace of God; the aggregate of the extremely diverse powers and gifts
granted to Christians; used of the power to undertake and administer the apostolic
office; of the gifts and knowledge bestowed upon Christians (8) Thanks (for
benefits, services, favors); recompense, reward.2
The Analytical Greek Lexicon Revised: (1) Pleasing show, charm; beauty,
gracefulness; a pleasing circumstance, matter of approval (2) Kindly bearing,
graciousness (3) A beneficial opportunity, benefit (4) A charitable act, generous
gift (5) An act of favor (6) Favor, acceptance (7) Free favor, free gift, grace (8)
Free favor specially manifested by God towards man in the Gospel scheme, grace
(9) A gracious provision, gracious scheme, grace (10) Gracious dealing from God,
grace (11) A commission graciously devolved by God upon a human agent (12)
Grace, graciously bestowed divine endowment, or influence (13) Grace, a
graciously vouchsafed spiritual position (14) An emotion correspondent to what is
pleasing or kindly; sense of obligation (15) A grateful frame of mind (16) Thanks
(17) To oblige, gratify.3

1 Moulton, J. H., & Milligan, G.; 1930; The vocabulary of the Greek Testament, pages 684-685; London: Hodder and Stoughton
2 The New Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon pages 665-666
3 The Analytical Greek Lexicon Revised page 433
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Vine’s Expository Dictionary of Biblical Words, “Charis has various uses, (a)
objective, that which bestows or occasions pleasure, delight, or causes favorable
regard; it is applied, e. g., to beauty, or gracefulness of person, Luke 2:40; act, 2
Cor 8:6, or speech, Luke 4:22, RV, ‘words of grace’ (KJV, ‘gracious words’); Col
4:6; (b) subjective, (1) on the part of the bestower, the friendly disposition from
which the kindly act proceeds, graciousness, loving-kindness, goodwill generally,
e. g., Acts 7:10; especially with reference to the divine favor or ‘grace,’ e. g., Acts
14:26; in this respect there is stress on its freeness and universality, its spontaneous
character, as in the case of God's redemptive mercy, and the pleasure or joy He
designs for the recipient; thus it is set in contrast with debt, Rom 4:4,16, with
works, 11:6, and with law, John 1:17; see also, e. g., Rom 6:14,15; Gal 5:4; (2) on
the part of the receiver, a sense of the favor bestowed, a feeling of gratitude, e. g.,
Rom 6:17 (‘thanks’); in this respect it sometimes signifies ‘to be thankful,’ e. g.,
Luke 17:9 (‘doth he thank the servant?’ lit., ‘hath he thanks to’); 1 Tim 1:12; (c) in
another objective sense, the effect of ‘grace,’ the spiritual state of those who have
experienced its exercise, whether (1) a state of ‘grace,’ e. g., Rom 5:2; 1 Peter
5:12; 2 Peter 3:18, or (2) a proof thereof in practical effects, deeds of ‘grace,’ e. g.,
1 Cor 16:3, RV, ‘bounty’ (KJV, ‘liberality’); 2 Cor 8:6,19 (in 2 Cor 9:8 it means
the sum of earthly blessings); the power and equipment for ministry, e. g., Rom
1:5; 12:6; 15:15; 1 Cor 3:10; Gal 2:9; Eph 3:2,7. To be in favor with is to find
‘grace’ with, e. g., Acts 2:47; hence it appears in this sense at the beginning and the
end of several epistles, where the writer desires ‘grace’ from God for the readers, e.
g., Rom 1:7; 1 Cor 1:3; in this respect it is connected with the imperative mood of
the word chairo, ‘to rejoice,’ a mode of greeting among Greeks, e. g., Acts 15:23;
James 1:1 (marg.); 2 John 10,11, RV, ‘greeting’ (KJV, ‘God speed’). The fact that
‘grace’ is received both from God the Father, 2 Cor 1:12, and from Christ, Gal 1:6;
Rom 5:15 (where both are mentioned), is a testimony to the deity of Christ. See
also 2 Thess 1:12, where the phrase ‘according to the grace of our God and the
Lord Jesus Christ’ is to be taken with each of the preceding clauses, ‘in you,’ ‘and
ye in Him.’ In James 4:6, ‘But He giveth more grace’ (Greek, ‘a greater grace,’
RV, marg.), the statement is to be taken in connection with the preceding verse,
which contains two remonstrating, rhetorical questions, ‘Think ye that the
Scripture speaketh in vain?’ and ‘Doth the Spirit (the Holy Spirit) which He made
to dwell in us long unto envying?’ (see the RV). The implied answer to each is ‘it
cannot be so.’ Accordingly, if those who are acting so flagrantly, as if it were so,
will listen to the Scripture instead of letting it speak in vain, and will act so that the
Holy Spirit may have His way within, God will give even ‘a greater grace,’
namely, all that follows from humbleness and from turning away from the world.”
A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian
Literature-Third Edition: (1) a winning quality or attractiveness that invites a
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favorable reaction, graciousness, attractiveness, charm, winsomness (2) a
beneficent disposition towards someone, favor, grace, gracious care/help, goodwill
(3) practical application of goodwill, (a sign of) favor, gracious deed/gift,
benefaction (4) exceptional effect produced by generosity, favor (5) response to
generosity or beneficence, thanks, gratitude.4
Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains: (1)
To show kindness to someone, with the implication of graciousness on the part of
the one showing such kindness – ‘to show kindness, to manifest graciousness
toward, kindness, graciousness, grace’ (88.66). (2) That which is given freely and
generously – ‘gift, gracious gift’ (57.103). (3) An expression of thankfulness –
‘thanks’ (33.350). (4) A favorable attitude toward someone or something – ‘favor,
good will’ (25.89).
Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament lists the following meanings:
(1) as a quality that adds delight or pleasure graciousness, attractiveness, charm
(LU 4.22); (2) as a favorable attitude; (a) active, of what is felt toward another
goodwill, favor (AC 2.47); (b) as a religious technical term for God’s attitude
toward human beings kindness, grace, favor, helpfulness (JN 1.16, 17; EP 2.8); (3)
concretely; (a) of exceptional effects produced by God’s favor ability, power,
enabling (RO 12.6; 1C 15.10); (b) of practical proofs of goodwill from one person
to another kind deed, benefit, favor (AC 24.27; 2C 1.15); collection for the poor,
generous gift (1C 16.3); (4) as an experience or state resulting from God’s favor
state of grace, favored position (RO 5.2); (5) as a verbal thank offering to God
gratitude, thanks (1C 15.57; 2C 9.15); (6) as contained in formulas that express
greetings or farewell in letters goodwill, favor, blessing (RO 1.7; 16.20). (Friberg,
T., Friberg, B., & Miller, N. F.; 2000; Vol. 4: Analytical lexicon of the Greek New
Testament, page 407; Baker's Greek New Testament library. Grand Rapids, Mich.;
Baker Books)

Charis in Titus 2:11

The noun charis, “grace” in Titus 2:11 refers to the incarnation of the Son of
God, the Lord Jesus Christ as well as His earthly life, teaching, substitutionary
spiritual and physical death’s on the cross as well as His resurrection from the
dead, which provided eternal salvation for all mankind.
In Titus 2:11, the articular construction of the noun charis, “grace” is serving as
a function marker meaning that it is marking this word as the nominative subject of
the verb epiphainomai (ἐπιφαίνοµαι), “has appeared.”

4 A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature-Third Edition Pages 1079-1080
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Classical Usage of Theos

The etymology of theos has not yet been clarified. The only thing that is certain
is that it was originally a title. It is originally a predicative term and had a broad
usage in classical literature. Homer employed both the plural theoi and the
indefinite singular theos (tis). In this use he is sometimes thinking of a divine being
and work in general. Sometimes he has a particular god in mind and sometimes
specifically Zeus. The term was applied to any superhuman being.
Johannes Scheider commenting on the classical usage of the word, writes,
“Greek religion was polytheistic. The gods were represented in anthropomorphic
form as personal beings who exercised a determining influence on the world and
fate of men, but who themselves were dependent on a superior fate. As they were
not creator-gods, they were not thought of as outside the universe and
transcendent. The cosmos included both gods and men. The influence of the gods
was not universal, but was limited by their natures and attributes. They were not
righteous in the OT sense. The Greek gods had form. Consequently, the statement
‘God is spirit’ (John 4:24) could not be applied to them. From Aeschylus onwards
the different gods came increasingly to be identified. Their convergence into one
divine being was prepared by the pre-Socratic thinkers and the ideas of classical
tragedy. The Greek philosophical understanding of god was non-personal.
Philosophers sought the origin of all things and the principle that shaped the world.
In the process of rationalizing and moralizing, brought about by philosophical
criticism and reflection, an important transformation of the Greek concept of god
took place. The divine forms were spiritualized and finally replaced by general
concepts like ‘world reason, the divine,’ and ‘being,’ which influenced and formed
the world as powers giving it meaning and creating order. In Hellenistic syncretism
the various Greek and non-Greek divinities were assimilated and even equated as a
result of the recognition that behind the diverse names stood the same entities.
This is particularly clear in the Isis cult. Not infrequently these tendencies lead to
the honouring of one godhead as the divine All. The development reached its
height in Neo-Platonism, where the divine is the universal One which has no
objective existence or personality. It is being itself which is manifested through a
series of hypostases and emanations in the world, since it is the ground and force
behind everything that is.”5
Hermann Kleinknecht once again commenting on the usage of theos in Greek
literature, writes, “Zeus takes the first decision and has the final word. Hence piety
often equates him quite simply with God (cf. Hom. Od., 4, 236; Demosth.Or., 18,
256; Aesch. Suppl., 524 ff.; 720 ff.; Ag., 160 ff.). Under the influence of rational

5 The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology volume 2, pages 66-67
2014 William E. Wenstrom, Jr. Bible Ministries 9
theological speculation along causal lines there develops out of the original
plurality of gods a divine genealogy and hierarchy (cf. Hesiod’s theogony). We
read of higher and lower gods, of families of gods, and finally of a pantheon. In
Greece and Rome there is not only a trinity etc., but also a group of twelve gods
(hoi dodeka theoi), and this expression comes to be used for the unity and totality
of the gods who rule the world (cf. Pind. Olymp., 5, 5; Plat. Phaedr., 247a). For
the most part theos is used for such well-known deities as Zeus, Apollos, Athena,
Eros etc. But to call the cosmos God is also good Greek (Plat. Tim. 92c: hode ho
kosmos...theos, Orig. Cels. V, 7); the phthonos is a kakistos kadikotatos theos,
Hippothoon Fr., 2 (TGF, p. 827), and in Eur. even meeting again is a god: Hel.
560: ho theoi theos gar kai to gignoskein philous. In Aesch. Choeph. 60 eutuchein
is for men theos te kai theou pleon. Similarly, original forces (dike II, 181), both
inward and outward, may be furnished with the predicate theos, and later abstract
concepts, cosmic magnitudes and divine attributes such as aion (I, 198), logos,
nous (Corp. Herm. II, 12), are personified in the cultus and philosophy and
hypostatised as gods. Eulabeia is an adikos theos, Eur. Phoen., 560; 782, and lupe
isa deine theos, Eur. Or. 399.”6
Heroes such as Chiron and Colonos were described as gods. Homer speaks of
extraordinary men as theos. An outstanding ruler may be called theos in the
Hellenistic period. In the Hellenistic cult of the ruler and the Roman cult of the
emperor theos becomes a designation of office. The word is used increasingly in
the world of religious philosophy to denote impersonal metaphysical powers and
forces. To the Greek athanatos is synonymous with theos. The gods are called
immortals (athanatoi, Hom. Iliad, 1, 503; Odyssey 1, 31). This does not mean
eternal pre-existence. It means only that they have no end, that they are not subject
to death.

Septuagint Usage of Theos

Theos occurs in the LXX with few exceptions as a translation for the Hebrew
words `Elohim and Yahweh (Yahweh, Lord God). This latter is the personal name
of God, the name under which He revealed Himself as the God of Israel (Exodus
3:13-15). Elohim and Yahweh are rarely translated by kurios or other terms.
`Elohim describes God and is the plural of `eloahh, but it usually takes its verb in
the singular when used of the true God. When it is in reference to the Lord the
plural form has no effect upon the reality that God is one (monotheism). `Elohim,
derived from `el, is one of the oldest terms for God, and it is found in all the
Semitic languages.

6 Theological Dictionary of the New Testament volume 3, page 68
2014 William E. Wenstrom, Jr. Bible Ministries 10