Exceptional Children

544 Pages·012.94 MB·English

EXCEPTI ONAL
CHILDREN
Introduction to Special Education
FOURTH EDITION
Daniel P. Hallahan
James M. Kauffman
University of Virginia
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632
Library of Congress Cataloging.in-Publication Data
Hallahan, Daniel P.
Exceptional children.
Includesbibliographies and index.
1. Exceptional children—Education—United States. •.
I. Kauffman, James M. II. Title. T1T
371.9 87-14467 rw,
p,tini t.,sie •ii' Hand
t
Editorial/productionsupervision: lerena Hoffman
Interior design: Levavi and Levavi
Design supervision: Judith A. Matz-Coniglio
Cover design: Judith A. Matz-Coniglio
Cover art: Two Sisters
© 1980 C. Crist Delmonico.
Manufacturing buyer: Carol Bystrom and Margaret Rizzi
Photo research: Ten Stratford
Photo editor: Lorinda Morris-Nantz
CHAPTER OPENING QUOTES: (1) and (2) Richard H. Hungerford, 'On Locusts," American Journal ofMental
(3) Neil Diamond, "Brooklyn Roads." Copyright © 1968 Stonebridge Music. All
Deficiency, 1950, 54, 415—418.
(4) Neil Diamond, "ShUn." Copyright C
rights reserved. Used by permission. International copyright secured.
secured. (5) Gerald
1967 Tallyrand Music, Inc. All rights reserved. Used by permission. International copyright
Jonas, Stuttering: The Disorder of Many Theories. Copyright © 1976, 1977 by Gerald Jonas. By arrangement with
appeared in The New
Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Inc. and International Creative Management. This selection originally
(7) Leonard Gershe, "Butterflies
Yorker (6) Helen Keller, The Story of My Lift New York: Doubleday, 1954.
Are Free." Copyright C 1969 by Leonard Gershe. (8) Words by Chuck Mangione. Copyright C 1971 Gates
(9) Autobiography of Mark Twain, edited by Charles Neider. New York: Harper
IM&u Rsiocw, I, n1c9. 5A9l.l Rig(h1t 0R) eBseorbv eDdy.lan, "The Times They Are A-Changin!" Copyright © 1963 Warner Bros.,Inc. All
Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
— © 1988, 1986, 1982, 1978 by Prentice Hall ,
ADivision of Simon & Schuster b4
Englewóod Cliffs, New Jersey 07632
7
Allrights reserved. No part of this book may be
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Contents
•
Preface ix
1
Introduction i
DEFINITIONS 6
Exceptional Children 6 SpecialEducation 6
WHAT SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHERS ARE EXPECTED TO DO 13
PREVALENCE OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 15
THE HISTORY OF SPECIAL EDUCATION 18
People and Ideas 18 The Fall and Rise of Special Education 22
professional and Parent Organizations 25 Legislation and Litigation 26
Perspectives on Legislation and Litigation 32
SUMMARY 38
REFERENCES 40
2
Retardation 43
L,-Mental
DEFINITIONS 44
Grossman's AAMD Definition 46 A Social System Definition 47
A Behavioral Definition 48
ClASSIFICATION 48
The AAtvID System 48 The Educators' System 49
PREVALENCE 49
CAUSES 50
Mild Retardation 50 More Severe Retardation 54
MEASUREMENT 61
Intelligence Tests 61 Assessing Adaptive Behavior 65
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS 66
Cognitive Characteristics 66 Personality Characteristics 69
Ut
iv COZ%rTENTS
EDUCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 70
Education for Mildly Retarded Students 70
Education for Moderately Retarded Students 77
Education for Severely and Profoundly Retarded Students 78
Administrative Arrangements 83
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING THE PRESCHOOL CHILD 86
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING THE ADOLESCENT AND ADULT 87
Sheltered Workshops 87 Nonsheltered Work Environments 88
Community Survival Skills 90
MANAGING THE CHILD IN SCHOOL 91
SUMMARY 91
REFERENCES 94
3
Disabilities 99
Learning
\/
DEFINITIONS 100
Factors to Consider in Definitions of Learning Disabilities 102
The Federal Definition 105
The National Joint Committee for Learning Disabilities Definition 105
The Association for Children and Adults with Learning Disabilities Definition 105
PREVALENCE 106
CAUSES 106
Organic and Biological Factors 106 Genetic Factors 108
Environmental Factors 108
MEASUREMENT 109
Standardized Achievement Tests 109 Process Tests 109
Informal Reading Inventories 111 Formative Evaluation Methods 112
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS -113
Perceptual, Perceptual-Motor, and General Coordination Problems 115
Disorders of Attention and Hyperactivity 116
Disorders of Memory and Thinking 120 Social Adjustment 121
The Learning-Disabled Child as an Inactive Learner with Strategy Deficits 125
Neurological Problems 126 Academic Achievement 126
EDUCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 129
Process Training 129 Multisensory Approaches 131
Structure and Stimulus Reduction for Hyperactivity and Distractibility 131
The Use of Medication with Hyperactive Children 132 Cognitive Training 133
Behavior Modification 135 Direct Instruction 136
Administrative Arrangements 137
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING THE PRESCHOOL CHILD 137
140
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING THE ADOLESCENT AND ADULT
Secondary Programming 141 Postsecondary Programming 145
MANAGING ThE CHILD IN SCHOOL 146
SUMMARY 147
REFERENCES 151
CONTENTS
4
-Eiiiotional Disturbance!
Behavioral Disorder 159
TERMINOLOGY 160
DEFINITION 162
Definition Problems 162 Current Definitions 165
CLASSIFICATION 166
Classification Problems 167 Current Classification Systems 168
PREVALENCE 169
CAUSES 171
Causes and Conceptual Models 171 Biological Factors 172 Family Factors 173
Cultural Factors 174 School Factors 175 Prevention 176
IDENTIFICATION 176
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS 178
Intelligence and Achievement 178 Social and Emotional Characteristics 179
Special Characteristics of Severely and Profoundly Disturbed Children 183
EDUCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 186
Conceptual Models and Education 186 Current Synthesis of Conceptual Models 190
Administrative Arrangements 192
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING THE PRESCHOOL CHILD 196
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING THE ADOLESCENT AND ADULT 198
Outlook for Adulthood 199
MANAGING ThE CHILD IN SCHOOL 199
SUMMARY 200
REFERENCES 202
5
-Sèech and Language Disorders 207
DEFINITION 208
SPEECH PRODUCTION 210
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 213
The How and Why of Language Learning 215
SPEECH DISORDERS 216
Voice Disorders 216 Articulation Disorders 219 Fluency Disorders 222
Disorders Associated with Orofacial Defects 224
Disorders Associated with Neurological Damage 227
LANGUAGE DISORDERS 228
Absence of Verbal Language Development 230 Qualitatively Different Language 235
Delayed Language 236 Interrupted Language Development 237
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS FOR SEVERELY HANDICAPPED INDIVIDUALS 237
PREVALENCE 238
STRATEGIES FOR ASSESSMENT AND INTERVENTION 241
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS 242
vi CONTENTS
EDUCATIONALCONSIDERATIONS 242
Role of the Teacher in Language Use (Pragmatics) 243
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING THE PRESCHOOL CHILD 246
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING THE ADOLESCENT AND ADULT 247
MANAGING THE CHILD IN SCHOOL 251
SUMMARY 253
REFERENCES 254
6
flearing Impairment 259
DEFINITIONAND CLASSIFICATION 260
PREVALENCE 263
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EAR 263
The Outer Ear 263 The Middle Ear 264 The Inner Ear 264
MEASUREMENT OF HEARING ABILITY 265
Pure-Tone Audiometry 265 Speech Audiometry 266
Tests for Young and Hard to Test Children 266 School Screening 267
CAUSES 267
Conductive, Sensorineural, and Mixed Impairments 267
Impairments of the Outer Ear 268 Impairments of the Middle Ear 268
Impairments of the Inner Ear 269
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS 271
Language and Speech Development 271 Intellectual Ability 272
Academic Achievement 275 Social Adjustment 276
EDUCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 277
Oralism versus Manualism 277
Oral Techniques—Auditory Training and Speechreading 279
Manual Techniques—Sign Language and Fingerspelling 285
Administrative Arrangements 287 Technological Advances 289
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING ThE PRESCHOOL CHILD 294
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING THE ADOLESCENT AND ADULT 295 -
MANAGINGTHE CHILD IN SCHOOL 297
SUMMARY 300
REFERENCES 302 -
7
Visual Impairment 307
DEFINITIONAND CLASSIFICATION 308
PREVALENCE 310
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE 311
MEASUREMENT OF VISUAL ABIUTY 311
CAUSES 313
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS 315
Language Development 315 Intellectual Ability 316 Mobility 320
Academic Achievement 322 Social Adjustment 322
CONTENTS •
EDUCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 325
Braille 325 Use of Remaining Sight 328 Listening Skills 329
Mobility Training 329 Special Instructional Aids 335
Administrative Arrangements 336
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING ThE PRESCHOOL CHILD 339
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING ThE ADOLESCENT AND ADULT 341
Independent Living 341 Employment 344
MANAGING THE CHILD IN SCHOOL 345
SUMMARY 349
REFERENCES 351
8
Disabilities 357
Physical
DEFINITIONAND CL&SSIFICATION 358
PREVALENCE AND NEED 359
NEUROLOGICAL IMPAIRMENTS 360
Cerebral Palsy 361 Epilepsy (Seizure Disorder) 365 Spina Bifida 368
Poliomyelitis 368 Multiple Sclerosis 370 Other Neurological Impairments 370
MUSCULOSKELETAL CONDITIONS 370
Muscular Dystrophy 370 Arthritis 372 Other Conditions 372
CONGENITAL MALFORMATIONS 373
Common Malformations 373 Congenital Malformations and Teratogens 374
ACCIDENTS AND OThER PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 375
CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT 379
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS 381
Academic Achievement 381 Personality Characteristics 382
PROSThETICS, ORThOTICS, AND ADAPTWE DEVICES FOR DAILY LIVING 384
EDUCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 388
Behavior Modification Procedures 388 Individual Educations Plans (IEPs) 388
Educational Placement 390 Educational Goals and Curricula 390
Links with Other Disciplines 393
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING THE PRESCHOOL CHILD 396
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING ThE ADOLESCENT AND ADULT 398
Choice of Career 402 Sociosexuality 403
MANAGING THE CHILD IN SCHOOL 404
SUMMARY 405
REFERENCES 406
9
- Giftedness
411
DEFINITION 412
Changes in the Definition of Giftedness 415 A Suggested Definition 420
PREVALENCE 420
ORIGINS OF GIFTEDNESS 422
Genetic and Other Biological Factors 422 Environmental Factors 424
Vj CONTENTS
SCREENING AND IDENTIFICATION 426
Effectiveness and Efficiency of Screening Techniques 426 Measuring Creativity 427
PHYSICAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL, AND BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS 428
Physical Characteristics 428 Educational and Occupational Characteristics 431
Social and Emotional Characteristics 432 Moral and Ethical Characteristics 435
ATFITUDES TOWARD GIFTED CHILDREN AND THEIR EDUCATION 437
NEGLECTED GROUPS OF GIFTED STUDENTS 439
The Problem of Underachievement 439 Gifted Minority Students 440
Handicapped Gifted Students 441
EDUCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 442
Acceleration 446 Models of Enrichment 446
TEACHERS OF GIFTED STUDENTS 448
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING THE PRESCHOOL CHILD 450
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EDUCATING ThE ADOLESCENT AND ADULT 452
MANAGING ThE CHILD IN SCHOOL 453
SUMMARY 454
REFERENCES 456
10
Normalization and Attitudes
toward Disabled People 461
NORMALIZATION 462
The Antilabeling Movement 462 The Disability Rights Movement 468
Society' Attitudes toward Handicapped Newborns 471
Technology and the Goal of Normalization 476
The Media's Treatment of Disabilities 477
DEINSTITLJTIONALIZATION 485
Research on the Effects of Placement in Large Residential Institutions 486
Research on the Effects of Placement in Community Residential Facilities 487
MAINSTREAMING 489
The Efficacy Studies Era (ca. 1950-4980) 489
The Post-Efficacy Studies Era (ca. 1980—Present) 491
The Future of Mainstreaming 503
SUMMARY 504
REFERENCES 507
Glossary 512
Index
521
Preface
This book is a general introduction to the characteristics of exceptional individuals
and their education. While we have placed the major emphasis on the classroom
practices that make up the discipline of special education, we have also covered the
special psychological, medical, and sociological aspects of the various handicapping
conditions. We think much of this material will be meaningful to general educators
as well as to special educators. This recognition of the significant role of the general
educator in dealing with students with a variety of learning and behavioral problems
is in response to the continuing trend to educate exceptional youngsters as close as
possible to the general education mainstream. In addition, much of the information
we present should be of interest to parents of exceptional children.
We begin with a chapter on introductory and historical concepts underlying the
education of handicapped individuals; we end with a chapter on the philosophical
principle of normalization and societal attitudes toward handicapped people. Be-
tween these two chapters are eight others, each devoted to a traditional category of
special education: mental retardation, learning disabilities, emotional disturbance!
behavioral disorder, speech and language disorders, hearing impairment, visual im-
pairment, physical disabilities, and giftedness.
We are aware of the noncategorical position in special education—the position
that the educational needs of exceptional children, especially those who are mildly
handicapped, are generally similar regardless of categorical designation. However,
we have continued to organize this book categorically through its four editions
because we believe that an introductory book should reflect the general viewpoint
of the special education profession, and the prevailing approach to educating excep-
tional students remains categorical. We also believe that our primary task as authors
of an introductory book is to inform readers of things as they are, not as any
particular advocacy group thinks they should be. In addition, some information is
more logically presented by category. For example, the nature of the individual's
condition (e.g., with visually impaired children, defects of the eye) and the educa-
tional methods used (e.g., with visually impaired children, Braille, large print books,
compressed speech devices, canes) are sometimes so specialized that a clear presen-
tation of them necessitates categorical organization. And finally, many instructors
who have continued to use the three previous editions have told us they appreciate
our well-organized, categorical format. Because the noncategorical orientation is an
important position within special education, however, we do discuss it at Ielevant
points in the text.
Believing the reader is not merely interested in the facts and figures of exceptional
students, we continue to approach exceptionality in as informal a manner as possible
without falling prey to folksiness. We want our readers to come away knowing basic
facts about handicapping conditions: definitions, causes, psychological and behav-
ioral characteristics, and educational approaches. But we also think it important that
ix
X • PREFACE
they have an appreciation of what it's like to have a handicap. To encourage sensitiv-
ity to the very personal impact a handicap can have on an individual, as well as on
those around him or her, we have chosen quotes from literature or songs to begin
each chapter. Each quote introduces the reader to the realities of being exceptional.
Based on positive comments from users, we've continued to include other special
features designed to provide a better understanding of exceptional individuals and
those who work with them. Perhaps the most popular new feature in the previous
edition was "One Professional's Perspective." These interviews of practitioners with
excellent reputations, we are gratified to learn, have helped readers realize what it's
like to be a professional faced with the day-to-day realities of working with excep-
tional students. The honesty of the response to the questions we posed to these
professionals has also contributed to readers' appreciation of exceptional students.
And it is refreshing that, without being Pollyanish, each of these professionals ex-
udes a high degree of enthusiasm for his or her professional role—an attitude that
reflects the recent national concern for excellence in all of education.
We start each chapter with boxed material listing common misconceptions. We
are still amazed at the considerable number of myths surrounding exceptional peo-
ple. A few (far too few) have been deleted since our first edition in 1978, only to be
replaced by others. Each of these myths is discussed within the chapter, but we
highlight them by placing them at the beginning of the chapter so students can
preview some of the salient topics to be presented.
We also provide boxed material throughout the book. These boxes are primarily
of three types: first, some highlight particularly interesting research findings and
their applicability to educational practice: second, some discuss particularly inter-
esting and important issues facing the field; and third, some present the human side
of being exceptional. In the latter case, they stress the inherent paradox of being
exceptional—that the exceptional individual is, at once, both different from and the
same as the rest of humanity. But because a person is different in some ways does not
mean that he or she is different in all ways.
Each categorical chapter ends with a section called "Managing the Child in
School." Although this section was originally conceptualized primarily as an aid for
readers having a general education background, feedback from users indicates that
special educators find it useful too. We don't intend these suggestions to be exhaus-
tive (we've restrained the urge to expand them in revised editions); they are meant
to serve as guiding principles for working with exceptional students.
And we again include a glossary for readers' convenience. Words appearing in
boldface within the text are listed in the glossary at the end of the book.
Mostly out of loyalty to the many instructors who used our previous editions so
faithfully, we have made modifications in this fourth edition cautiously. We have
thoroughly updated information on all aspects of the field of special education—a
task that becomes more challenging with each new edition because of the ever-
expanding nature of our field. It is, however, a pleasure for us to be chroniclers of
the many new and exciting developments in the field, technological and otherwise.
In addition, we have made four other changes worth noting. First, we have ex-
panded the chapter summaries to help the reader glean the most salient points in
each chapter. Second, in keeping with trends in the field, we have increased the
coverage of early childhood as well as secondary and postsecondary programming.
Third, after careful analysis, we have added and deleted boxes. Finally, we have
reorganized and expanded the last chapter, "Normalization and Attitudes Toward
Disabled People." Although the focus of the chapter is still on society's attitudes