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Examining Ecology: Exercises in Environmental Biology and Conservation PDF

415 Pages·2017·45.59 MB·English
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EXAMINING ECOLOGY This page intentionally left blank EXAMINING ECOLOGY Exercises in Environmental Biology and Conservation Paul A. Rees School of Environment & Life Sciences, University of Salford, Manchester, United Kingdom Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom 525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, United States 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States Te Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. Tis book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this feld are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-12-809354-2 For Information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Sara Tenney Acquisition Editor: Kristi Gomez Editorial Project Manager: Pat Gonzalez Production Project Manager: Mohanambal Natarajan Designer: Matthew Limbert Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India For Harry David Clark, George Arthur Clark and Elliot Henry Clark This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS Preface xi Acknowledgements xv Chapter 1 Biodiversity and Taxonomy 1 Introduction 2 Te Naming and Classifcation of Organisms 2 Te Identifcation of Species 3 Biodiversity Hotspots Versus Cold Spots 3 Citizen Science 4 References 4 Exercise 1.1 Ecology and Taxonomy 5 Exercise 1.2 What’s in a Name? Vernacular Versus Scientifc Names 7 Exercise 1.3 Te Classifcation of Animals 9 Exercise 1.4 Constructing a Dichotomous Key 11 Exercise 1.5 Global Biodiversity: Te Numbers of Recognised Species 13 Exercise 1.6 Diversity in Chalcid Wasps 14 Exercise 1.7 Lognormal Distribution of Species Relative Abundance 15 Exercise 1.8 Te Discovery of New Species 16 Exercise 1.9 Extinctions Versus Discovery of New Species 18 Exercise 1.10 Te Historical Ecology of the Large Mammals of Ngorongoro Crater 20 Exercise 1.11 Pest Eradication in New Zealand 22 Exercise 1.12 Citizen Science: Biodiversity and Environmental Studies 25 Exercise 1.13 Te Ecological Value of Ancient Woodland 27 Chapter 2 Abiotic Factors and Ecophysiology 29 Introduction 30 Limits for Life 30 Climatic Variation 30 Temperature Regulation 31 Adaptation to Harsh Environments 31 References 31 Exercise 2.1 Climatic Variations 32 Exercise 2.2 Lake Stratifcation 34 Exercise 2.3 Carbon Dioxide and Photosynthesis 35 Exercise 2.4 Te Efect of Water Table Depth on Seed Germination 36 Exercise 2.5 Te Efect of Oxygen Level on Midge Larvae Survival 37 Exercise 2.6 Temperature Selection in Two Fish Species 38 Exercise 2.7 Adaptation to Life Underwater: Diving in Seals 39 Exercise 2.8 Surviving Salty Environments: Maintaining Osmotic Balance 40 Exercise 2.9 Living in the Desert: Temperature Tolerance in the Camel 42 Exercise 2.10 Diapause in Grapholita 44 Exercise 2.11 Te Efect of Temperature on Dusting Behaviour in an Asian Elephant 45 Exercise 2.12 Hibernation in the Black Bear 47 Exercise 2.13 Microclimate Preferences in Woodlice 48 CONTENTS Chapter 3 Ecosystems, Energy and Nutrients 51 Introduction 53 Food Chains and Food Webs 53 Ecological Pyramids 54 Nutrient Cycles 55 Nutrient Cycles and People 55 Ecological Succession 56 References 56 Exercise 3.1 A Steppe Ecosystem: Biotic and Abiotic Factors 57 Exercise 3.2 Food Webs in an English Woodland 58 Exercise 3.3 Ecological Pyramids 60 Exercise 3.4 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 62 Exercise 3.5 A Comparison of Energy Budgets in Two Ecosystems 63 Exercise 3.6 Chemotrophism 64 Exercise 3.7 Grazing and Detritus Food Chains 65 Exercise 3.8 Energy Sources in Aquatic Ecosystems 66 Exercise 3.9 Energy Budget of a Bank Vole 67 Exercise 3.10 Wildlife Biomass in the Serengeti 68 Exercise 3.11 Assimilation Efciency in the African Elephant 70 Exercise 3.12 Capybara Farming in Venezuela 72 Exercise 3.13 Te Nitrogen Cycle 73 Exercise 3.14 Nitrogen Balance for Lake Mendota, Wisconsin 74 Exercise 3.15 Te Economics of Fertiliser Application 75 Exercise 3.16 Sewage Sludge Cake as a Fertiliser 76 Exercise 3.17 Te Efect of pH on Crop Growth 77 Exercise 3.18 Timanfaya National Park, Lanzarote: An Opportunity to Study Succession 78 Exercise 3.19 Succession in Bird Species 79 Chapter 4 Determining Abundance and Distribution 81 Introduction 82 Discovering New Species 83 Mapping Distributions 83 Estimating Population Size 84 References 84 Exercise 4.1 Recording the Distribution of Organisms 85 Exercise 4.2 Problems in Determining the Historical Distribution of Organisms 87 Exercise 4.3 Community Science: Moors for the Future 88 Exercise 4.4 Bird Ringing 92 Exercise 4.5 Zonation on a Rocky Shore 94 Exercise 4.6 Te Efect of Sample Size on Population Estimates Obtained Using Quadrat Sampling 96 Exercise 4.7 Estimating the Size of a Population of Mobile Animals 98 Exercise 4.8 Estimating Population Size by Removal Trapping 100 Exercise 4.9 Studying Animal Populations Using a Calendar of Catches 102 Exercise 4.10 Population Dynamics of a Zoo Population of Chimpanzees 103 Exercise 4.11 Estimating Population Size Indirectly: Badgers and Setts 104 Exercise 4.12 Analysis of Spatial Distributions: Clumped, Uniform or Random? 107 iv STNETN OC Exercise 4.13 Estimating the Size of a Large Mammal Population by Transect Sampling 108 Exercise 4.14 Sampling Zooplankton Populations 110 Exercise 4.15 Estimating the Size of Whale Populations 111 Exercise 4.16 Estimating Population Size Using the Lincoln Index: A Simulation 113 Exercise 4.17 Population Size and Habitat Selection in Two Species of Gulls 115 Exercise 4.18 Te Factors Afecting Plant Population Estimates Obtained by Quadrat Sampling: A Computer Simulation 18 Chapter 5 Population Growth 121 Introduction 12 Defning Populations 122 Population Growth 122 Life Tables and Survivorship Curves 123 R- and K-Strategists 123 References 123 Exercise 5.1 Exponential Population Growth 124 Exercise 5.2 Boom and Bust Population Growth 125 Exercise 5.3 Logistic Population Growth 126 Exercise 5.4 Density-Dependent and Density-Independent Factors and Population Control 127 Exercise 5.5 Using Leslie Matrices to Model Population Growth 129 Exercise 5.6 Life Table for the Honey Bee 132 Exercise 5.7 Survivorship of Dall Sheep 133 Exercise 5.8 Types of Survivorship Curve 134 Exercise 5.9 Te Age Structure of Captive Female African Elephants 135 Exercise 5.10 Opportunity or Equilibrium: r-Strategist or K-Strategist? 136 Chapter 6 Species Interactions 139 Introduction 140 Competition and Niche Teory 140 Keystone Species 141 Predation 141 Biological Control 142 References 142 Exercise 6.1 Competition in Two Tree Species 143 Exercise 6.2 Intraspecifc Competition in Barley 144 Exercise 6.3 Competitive Exclusion 145 Exercise 6.4 Competition in Flour Beetles 146 Exercise 6.5 Do Cormorants and Shags Compete for Food? 147 Exercise 6.6 Competition Between Ants and Rodents 148 Exercise 6.7 Defning the Niche 149 Exercise 6.8 Niche Separation in Warblers 152 Exercise 6.9 Niche Separation in Tropical Monkeys 154 Exercise 6.10 Predator–Prey Simulation 155 Exercise 6.11 Predation of Foxes on Rabbits 156 Exercise 6.12 Te Efects of Disease, Climate and Vegetation Change on Large Mammal Populations 158 Exercise 6.13 Biological Control 161 Exercise 6.14 Seals and Phocine Distemper Virus 162 ix

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