Evolution and Human Behavior: Darwinian Perspectives on Human Nature (Bradford Books)

398 Pages·2000·14.86 MB·English

by  John Cartwright

© 2000 John Cartwright
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or
mechanical means including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval)
without permission in writing from the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cartwright, John, 1953-
Evolution and human behavior : Darwinian perspectives on hutmn nature / John Cartwright.
p. cm.
A Bradford Book
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-262-03281-3 (alk. paper) — ISBN 0-262-53170-4 (pbk. . alk. paper)
1. Behavior evolution 2. Genetic psychology. 3. Darwin. Charles Robert, 1809-1882.
1. Title.
BF7O1,.C37 2000
155.7—dc21 99-087600
Editing and origination by
Aardvark Editorial, Mendhim, Suffolk
Printed in Great Britain
1098765
Contents
List of Figures xii
List of Tables xvi
Preface xviii
Acknowledgements xxi
1 Historical Introduction: Evolution and Theories of Mind and
Behaviour, Darwin and After 1
1.1 The origin of species 2
1.1.1 New foundations 3
1.2 The study of animal behaviour 3
1.2.1 Comparative psychology and ethology:
the 19th-century origins 4
1.2.2 Ethology and comparative psychology in the 20th century 6
1.2.3 Interactions between comparative psychology and ethology 14
1.3 Evolution and theories of human behaviour: Darwin and after 16
1.3.1 Man the moral animal 16
1.3.2 Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) 17
1.3.3 Evolution in America: Morgan, Baldwin and James 19
1.3.4 Galton and the rise of the eugenics movement 20
1.4 The triumph of culture 21
1.4.1 Franz Boas 21
1.4.2 The revolt against eugenics 24
1.4.3 Behaviourism as an alternative resting place 24
1.5 The rise of Sociobiology and evolutionary psychology 25
Summary 30
Further reading 31
2 Darwin's Legacy 32
2.1 The mechanism of Darwinian evolution 32
2.1.1 The ghosts of Lamarckism 34
2.1.2 The central dogma in a modem form 35
2.2 Darwin's difficulties 36
2.2.1 The problem of altruism 37
2.2.2 Natural selection or sexual selection?: dilemmas over sex 38
2.3 Testing for adaptive significance 39
vi
CONTENTS vii
2.3.1 Pitfalls of the adaptationist paradigm: 'Just so stories' and
Panglossianism 39
2.3.2 The testing of hypotheses 42
2.4 Adaptations and fitness: then and now 44
2.4.1 Evolutionary psychology or Darwinian anthropology? 45
2.4.2 Orders of explanation in evolutionary thinking 52
Summary 54
Further reading 55
3 The Selfish Gene 57
3.1 Some basic principles of genetics 58
3.1.1 The genetic code 58
3.1.2 From genes to behaviour: some warnings 68
3.2 The unit of natural selection 71
3.2.1 The lure and failure of group selection 71
3.2.2 The unit of selection: replicators and vehicles 72
3.3 Kin selection and altruism 74
3.3.1 Hamilton's rule 75
3.3.2 Coefficient of relatedness 76
3.3.3 Application of Hamilton's rule and kin selection 77
3.4 Kin recognition 80
3.4.1 Kin recognition and discrimination 80
3.4.2 Outbreeding: incest taboos and the Westermarck effect 82
3.5 Reciprocal altruism 84
3.5.1 Altruism and selfishness 84
3.5.2 Reciprocal altruism, or time-delayed discrete mutualism 86
3.5.3 Conditions for the existence of reciprocal altruism 86
3.5.4 true altruism and pseudo-altruism: genes and
vehicles revisited 88
Summary 89
Further reading 90
4 Mating Behaviour: From Systems to Strategics 91
4.1 Why sex? 92
4.1.1 The costs of sex 93
4.1.2 The lottery principle 95
4.1.3 The tangled bank hypothesis, or spatial heterogeneity 96
4.1.4 The Red Queen hypothesis 97
4.1.5 The DNA repair hypothesis 98
4.2 Sex and anisogamy 100
4.3 Describing mating behaviour: systems and strategics 101
4.4 Factors affecting expressed mating strategies 104
4.4.1 A generalised model of mating behaviour 104
4.4.2 Phylogeny 104
4.4.2 Ecological conditions 106
4.4.3 Game theory conflicts between rival strategies 112
viii CONTENTS
4.5 The sex ratio: Fisher and after 116
4.5.1 Why so many males? 116
4.5.2 Fisher's argument 116
4.5.3 Testing and extending Fisher's argument 118
4.5.4 Empirical tests of the Trivers-Willard hypothesis 120
Summary 122
Further reading 123
5 Sexual Selection 124
5.1 Finding a mate 124
5.1.1 Natural and sexual selection 124
5.1.2 Inter and intrasexual selection 125
5.2 Consequences of intrasexual selection 126
5.2.1 Sexual dimorphism: size and weaponry 126
5.2.2 Variance in reproductive success - Bateman's principle 129
5.3 Parental investment, reproductive rates and operational
sex ratios 131
5.3.1 Problems with the concept of parental investment 131
5.3.2 Potential reproductive rates: humans and other animals 132
5.3.3 The operational sex ratio 134
5.3.4 The operational sex ratio and humans 135
5.4 Post copulatory intrasexual competition 137
5.4.1 Sperm competition 137
5.4.2 Anisogamy and sperm warfare 138
5.5 Intersexual selection 140
5.5.1 Mechanisms of intersexual selection 140
5.5.2 Good taste: Fisher and runaway sexual selection 142
5.5.3 Good genes and indicator mechanisms 145
5.5.4 Good resources and good behaviour 147
5.5.5 Case studies: the peacock and the widow-bird 148
5.5.6 Sexual selection in humans: some questions 151
Summary 155
Further reading 156
6 The Evolution of Brain Size 157
6.1 Humans and the great apes 158
6.1.1 A note on cladistic taxonomy 158
6.1.2 The human-primate gap: the 1.6 per cent advantage 162
6.1.4 Phylogeny of the Hominoidea 165
6.2 Intelligence in humans and other primates 167
6.2.1 The importance of being large 167
6.2.2 Brain size in humans and other mammals 171
6.2.3 Origins of primate intelligence 177
6.2.4 Food or sociality: testing the theories 183
Summary 190
Further reading 190
CONTENTS ix
7 Language and the Modular Mind 192
7.1 The modular mind 193
7.1.1 The issue of modularity 193
7.1.2 The modular mind in action: cognitive adaptations for
social exchange 198
7.2 Language 202
7.2.1 Natural selection and the evolution of language 202
7.2.2 Dating the origin of human language: culture, anatomy
and grooming 205
Summary 210
Further reading 211
8 Understanding Human Sexual Behaviour: Anthropological
Approaches 212
8.1 Contemporary traditional or preindustrial societies 212
8.1.1 Cultural distribution of mating systems 213
8.1.2 Hunter-gatherer societies 214
8.2 Sex and history 215
8.2.1 Power, wealth and sex in early civilisation 215
8.3 Physical comparisons between humans and
other primates 217
8.3.1 Body size and canine size dimorphism 217
8.3.2 Testis size 219
8.3.3 Testis size and bodily dimorphism applied to humans 220
8.4 Concealed ovulation 224
8.4.1 Terminology 224
8.4.2 Conspicuous and concealed ovulation - some hypotheses 224
8.4.3 Testing rival hypotheses of concealed ovulation 228
8.4.4 Menstruation 231
Summary 232
Further reading 233
9; Human Mate Choice: The Evolutionary Logic of
Sexual Desire 234
9.1 Evolution and sexual desire: some expectations
and approaches 235
9.2 Questionnaire approaches 236
9.2.1 Cross-cultural comparisons 236
9.2.2 Urgency in copulation 238
9.2.3 A qualified parental investment model: the effect of
levels of involvement 238
9.3 The use of published advertisements 240
9.3.1 Origin of mate choice preferences: evolutionary
psychology or structural powerlessness 243
x CONTENTS
9.4 The use of stimulus pictures 243
9.4.1 Male assessment of females 243
9.4.2 Female assessment of men 247
9.5 Fluctuating asymmetry 249
9.6 Male preference for youth, the female menopause
and longevity 251
9.7 Facial attractiveness: averageness, symmetry and
honest signals 253
9.7.1 Honest signals of genetic worth 253
9.7.2 Faces as purveyors of information 255
Summary 259
Further reading 260
10 Conflict within Families and Other Groups 261
10.1 Parent-offspring interactions: some basic theory 262
10.1.1 Parental altruism 262
10.1.2 Parent-offspring conflict 262
10.2 Maternal-fetal conflict 266
10.2.1 Conflicts over glucose supplied to the fetus 266
10.2.2 Conflicts over decision to miscarry 267
10.2.3 Conflicts over blood supply 268
10.2.4 Conflict after parturition 268
10.3 Human violence and homicide 269
10.3.1 Kinship and violence: a paradox? 270
10.3.2 Infanticide 271
10.4 Human sexual conflicts 278
10.4.1 Marriage as a reproductive contract: control of
female sexuality 279
10.4.2 Jealousy and violence 282
10.4.3 Divorce and remarriage 283
Summary 285
Further reading 286
11 Altruism, Co-operation and the Foundations of Culture 287
11.1 Game theory and the origins of human altruism 288
11.1.1 The prisoners' dilemma 288
11.1.2 Applications of game theory 295
11.2 Altruism: emotion and morality 301
11.2.1 The emotional life of an altruist 301
11.2.2 Biological morality and induced altruism 302
11.3 The distribution of wealth: inheritance and kin investment
in human culture 303
11.3.1 Inheritance rules and marriage systems 304
11.3.2 Inheritance of wealth: practice in a contemporary
Western culture 305
CONTENTS xi
11.4 The evolution of culture: genes and memes 307
11.4.1 Culture as autonomous 308
11.4.2 Culture as a consequence of genotype: culture is a
programme tor fitness maximisation 309
11.4.3 Gene-culture co-evolution 311
11.4.4 Cultural evolution as the natural selection of memes or
part of gene-meme co-evolution 312
Summary . 318
Further reading 318
12 Epilogue: The Use and Abuse of Evolutionary Theory 320
12.1 Evolution and politics: a chequered history 320
12.1.1 Race. IQ and intelligence 325
12.1.2 A poisoned chalice 32S
12.2 Social Darwinism and eugenics 327
12.2.1 Social Darwinism 327
12.2.2 Eugenics 328
12.3 Evolutionary biology and sexism 330
12.4 Evolutionary biology and racism 334
12.5 The limits of nature 337
12.5.1 Reductionism and determinism 337
12.5.2 The perfectibility of man 338
12.6 So human an animal 339
12.6.1 Fine intentions 339
12.6.2 Retrieving our humanity 341
Summary 343
Further reading 343
Glossary 344
References 356
Index 371
LisotfF igures
1.1K onrLaodr e(n91z0 39-81)9 7
12. Composdirtaewo iftn hgie d eianlf afnatciel e 8
13. TheA meribciaonl oEgdiwsaWtri dl s(obno 1r29n9 ) 27
2.1T heg erlmi anneid n formflaotwai,co cno rtdoWi enigs mann 35
22. Thec entdroaglmo aft hmeo lecbualsoaifris n heritance 36
2.3C harDlaersw (i81n0 -9188)2 37
24. Howt heel epahcaqnut ialr oendtg r unk 40
2.5 Theh ypothetico-demdeutchtoidav pep liteode volutionary
hypothe-seasni deavliieswe d 43
2.6T her elabteitwoenae nnc esatdrapatla atnicdou nrsrb eenhta vio4u7r
3.1S trucotfDu NrAec, o mpoosfse udg pahro,s pahnabdta esg er oup5s9
3.2D NAa sad oubhleelo ifcx o mplemepnotlayrnyuc clheaoitnisd5 e9
3.3R eplicoafDt NiAo n 60
34. JamWeast s(obn1. 9 2)8o,n t hlee aftn,Fd r anCcriis(c bk1. 9 16)6 1
3.5D NAa ss ectoifgo ennsae nsnd o n-cosdeicntgi ons 62
3.6T ranscrainptdtr iaonnso lfaD tNiAa onnRNd A 62
3.7C omplemepnatoiafrcr hyr omossohmoewshi onmgo zygosity
foarl lBea lnehd e terozaytAg aonsCdi ty 64
3.8S implpiificetoduf mr eei oasnisdsp ermatogenesis 65
39. Fertiloifas noa vtuimo n 66
3.1H0a emopihnit lhmieoa n arcohfEi uerso pe 69
3.11 Conditfiotorhn sesp reoafahd e lpgiennge 75
3.1C2o efficoifre enlta tebdentweesseisnb lings 77
3.1F3o od-shianvr aimnpbgia rstse h owinnt eromfas
cost-baennaelfiyts is 87
4.1C omparoifts hofene cunodffi etmyab lreese daisnegx ually
ansde xually 94
4.2R eladtiimveen soifo enagsnfg r oamh umafne maalnaeds perm
froamm ale 100
4.3T heb reakdoofaw nni sobgyad miys ruspetlievcet ion 101
4.4M odeolff actionrflsu entchmiean tgi sntgr aotfe giaynn d ivid1u0a4l
4.5F actdoertse rmtihndeii nsgt riobffu etmiaoalnnet dsh iem pact
onm almea tistnrga tegy 160
4.6T hep olygtyhnrye smhoodledl 170
xii
LISOTF FIGRUES xiii
4.7 Polygiyascn oym momna tisnygs tfeohmru mainnms a npya rts
oft hweo rld 180
4.8V arioafnm caelr ee prodsuucctciievntse hs e gsraogues e
(C entroucreorpchuass ianus) III
4.9 Presssuerrevtsios n tga btihlseie srxea tio 171
5.1I ntaenrid-n trasseelxeucatli on 126
52. Mearne prodsuucctci(evmsees a sbuyrn eudm boefpr u pwse aned)
ofm alaen fde maellee psheaan(ltMis r ouannggau stirost1r27i s)
5.3S exudailm orpihnri eslma ttohi aornes mif zoe(r a u)n gulates
(deaenrad n telaonp(deb p))i nni(pseedasl s) 128
54. Intrasseexlueaciltna i cotnim oanls:eo utheelrenp sheaantl s
(Miroulnegoan fiignha)t ing 129
5.5I nfluenctehosep eorna tsieroxan taailno td h ree lationship
betwteheainns sd e xsuealle ction 163
56. Intrasceoxmupaelta inttdih ooenp eratsieroxan ta(ilOo S R) 163
57. Ther esoufil ntt ersseelxeucaatlm i aoloneft: h ceo mmon
peaf(oaPwvlco r istdaitsupsl)a ying 149
5.8R elatiboentswhteihepnen u mboefer y sep oatnsmd a tisnugc cess
inag rooufpt epne acocks 150
59. Relatiboentswhteihepeen y sep oatr eoafm alaenstd h fiet ness
ofo ffspring 105
5.1E0f feocfmt asn ipuloaftt aliieolnn go tnth h ber eedsiuncgco efs s
malwei dow-birds 151
5.11 Humasne xduiamlo rphism 125
51.2Y ounmge na nwdo meanta d isSceox.us aell ecitnai cotni on
orj uhsatv iagn ogo tdi me? 145
6.1D iagramimlaltuiscot frs apteicoianar toiuoa nnd
reprodbuacrtriiveer 195
6.2 Tradittiaoxnoanoloft m hyhe u masnp ecies 195
6.3C ladogfroarm v fievret ebrates 106
6.4 Cladcilsatsisci ofifhc oamtiinoainnd pdso ngids 161
6.5H ypothreetliactailbo entswhteiheprns e pee cAi,Be asn Cd 165
6.6E voluttirooenfeat rhpyer imbaatseoesn dg lobainnd
mitochognednsreei qaule nces 166
6.7C urrgeenotg radpihsitcrailob ftu htMeir oinca annAd s iaapne s 167
6.8T imceh aorfet a rhloym inids 107
6.9 Conjecetvuorleudot fhi oomni snoicdsi yaslt ienrm esl attoi on
grosuipaz nebd r asiincz hea nges 127
61.0G rowotfbh r asiiniz ner elattobi oodnsy i fzoemr a mmals 147
61.1L ogariptlhoomtfbi rca siinaz gea ibnosdstyi ze 157
61.2G rowitnhh u mabnr avionl udmuer ihnugm aenv olution 175
61.3P ygmcyh im(paPsnp anisgcruoso)m eiancoght her 197
61.4An interproefdt eacteeipb otenih vaviinbo aubro (oPnasp uiros i1nu8s1)
61.5T riumnoed eolft hber aaispn r opobsyMe adc Lean 186