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Evidentialism and the Will to Believe Also available from Bloomsbury Advances in Experimental Epistemology, edited by James Beebe Epistemology: The Key Thinkers, Stephen Hetherington Pragmatism: A Guide for the Perplexed, Robert B. Talisse and Scott F. Aikin The Continuum Companion to Epistemology, edited by Andrew Cullison Evidentialism and the Will to Believe Scott F. Aikin LONDON • NEW DELHI • NEW YORK • SYDNEY Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square 1385 Broadway London New York WC1B 3DP NY 10018 UK USA www.bloomsbury.com Bloomsbury is a registered trade mark of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published 2014 © Scott F. Aikin 2014 Scott F. Aikin has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the Author of this work. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the author. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: HB: 978-1-6235-6017-1 ePDF: 978-1-7809-3664-2 ePub: 978-1-7809-3644-4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Typeset by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Contents Acknowledgments viii Copyright Acknowledgments x Introduction 1 1. The objectives of commentary 1 2. Three themes 4 3. Five evaluative theses 6 1 Reading William Kingdon Clifford’s “The Ethics of Belief” 9 William Kingdon Clifford and the Metaphysical Society 9 Section I – The duty of inquiry 13 1. The ship owner case 13 2. The island case 22 3. Beliefs and actions 27 4. Beliefs and their consequences 32 5. Ethics and belief 42 6. Endorsing evidentialism 47 Section II – The weight of authority 50 1. Anti-skepticism 50 2. Testimonial evidence 53 3. Miraculous testimony 56 4. The publicity requirement 59 5. The sacred tradition of humanity 64 Section III – The limits of inference 69 1. A burnt child dreads the fire 69 2. Regulative principles 72 3. Three norms 78 2 Reading William James’s “The Will to Believe” 79 William James and “The Will to Believe” 79 Preamble 81 vi Contents Section I – Hypotheses and options 86 1. Introduction and definitions 86 2. Live and dead hypotheses 87 3. Forced options 91 4. Momentous options 95 5. Religion as a genuine option 96 Section II – Pascal’s Wager 98 1. Four stages of “The Will to Believe” 98 2. Voluntarism and its limits 100 3. The wager 101 4. Clifford’s veto 102 Section III – Psychological causes of belief 103 1. A concession to evidentialism 103 2. Truth and other useful ideas 106 3. Pascal is a regular clincher 108 Section IV – The thesis of the essay 109 1. A thematic transition 109 2. The thesis 111 Sections V and VI – Absolutism and empiricism 114 1. Two forms of faith 114 2. Objective evidence and its discontents 118 3. Truth for empiricism 121 Section VII – Two different sorts of risks in believing 123 1. The two commandments 123 2. The case for the Truth Norm 125 3. Two critical points 128 Section VIII – Some risk unavoidable 131 1. Applying the meta-epistemology 131 2. Interested inquiry 133 3. Two analogies 135 Section IX – Faith may bring forth its own verification 136 1. Moral and scientific questions 136 2. Moral skepticism 137 3. The argument from friendship 140 4. The argument from social coordination 145 5. Doxastic efficacy and the Will to Believe 148 Contents vii Section X – Logical conditions of religious belief 154 1. The overall form of James’s argument 154 2. Religion’s dual essence 160 3. Religion as live and momentous 163 4. Religion as forced 167 5. The conversion fallacy 170 6. Religion as doxastically efficacious 172 7. Evidentialism as irrational 175 8. Religious tolerance 178 3 The Ethics of Belief and Philosophy of Religion 181 Question 1: Must evidentialism be an ethical doctrine? 181 Question 2: Can practical reasons trump theoretical reasons? 184 Question 3: Can religion be pragmatically reconstructed? 190 Question 4: What about the power of positive thinking? 192 Notes 195 Bibliography 203 Index 210 Acknowledgments This is a book that has, in some form or other, been brewing for a long time. Since my first exposure to the ethics of belief debates in graduate school, I wanted to know the issue inside and out. One of the real benefits of falling into this matter at that time in my education was that I had a cadre of other like-minded students with whom to discuss the issue. Vanderbilt in the late nineties and early aughts provided a rich variety of attitudes. My two regular partners in conversation on the Clifford–James debate were James Bednar and Allen Coates. My understanding of and views on the ethics of belief are all descendants of the ideas that survived our joint critical scrutiny. Others at Vanderbilt who contributed mightily to my understanding of the issue were Jason Aleksander, Erin Bradfield, Carolyn Cusick, Jeff Edmonds, Paul Ford, Lenn Goodman, David Miguel Gray, Michael Hodges, John Lachs, Mason Marshall, Emily McGill, Jose Medina, Jonathan Neufeld, Brian Ribeiro, Aaron Simmons, Robert Talisse, Jeffrey Tlumak, Derek Turner, and Dylan Wittkower. Additionally, another Vanderbilt alum, Micah Hester organized a session on “The Will to Believe” at the 2012 William James Society, and he was good enough to invite me to present a short version of my main critical line against James. The session was incredibly rewarding. Micah and the other panelists, Jeff Kasser and Michael Slater, provided me with very helpful feedback and justly critical pushback. Others who have given me very useful thoughts on the issue at various conferences and over email have been Jonathan Adler, Guy Axtell, Bryan Baird, Antonio Bendezu, Robert Brandom, John Casey, Mylan Engel, Richard Gale, Cynthia Gayman, Russell Goodman, Charlie Hobbs, Christopher Hookway, Henry Jackman, Ralph Johnson, Jason Kawall, Peter Klein, Mary Magada-Ward, Cheryl Misak, Ted Poston, Harvey Siegel, and Brian Zamulinski. Another very hearty word of thanks is reserved for Colleen Coalter at Bloomsbury for contacting me with the idea of pursuing this book. She, Andrew Wardell, and the rest of the editorial staff at Bloomsbury have been a pleasure to work with. One of my main motives for writing this book was that I thought that Clifford’s view and his argument for it has been all too ignored in the critical literature on the ethics of belief. Beyond the careful work of Brian Zamulinski (2002 and 2004) and Tim Madigan (2012), there have not been really any tight- Acknowledgments ix focus readings of Clifford’s essay or sympathetic replies to James’s criticisms. I concede that Clifford’s argument, ultimately, doesn’t work. Its final move is a confusion of contraries with contradictories—he takes it that if one holds that it is false that All events are parts of the uniformity of nature, then one must hold that No events are uniform. Despite this error, Clifford’s argument fares much better than for what James gives him credit. It’s worthwhile to clarify the view— and to extend and supplement Clifford’s argument where it can be. Evidentialism is the correct attitude, I think, and Clifford’s arguments are the right ethical lines to take when they are properly framed. I, further, believe that far too many of the close readings of James are altogether insufficiently critical. They neither challenge James on his interpretations of Clifford nor do they subject James’s substantive philosophical claims to much scrutiny. That, I think, needs fixing, and I’ll have some very critical lines of argument against James’s position here. My main charge against James’s case is that it relies on an illicit conversion of the plausible All belief directs action to the implausible All action is directed by belief. James’s argument depends on the thought that only by holding a positive belief can the actions comprising and making possible successful living can be performed. But it is far from clear that one must believe in order to act. One most certainly can act without thinking—people do it all the time. A final word of thanks to my wife, Susan Foxman, and our wonderful daughters, Madeleine and Iris. I’ve been blessed in having a supportive and thoughtful family. Both daughters have provided many good critical thoughts on the project, as they’ve regularly been game to discuss the examples from Clifford’s ship owner to James’s social coordination cases. My presentation has improved in clarity because of my practice in explaining the matter to eight- and twelve-year-olds.