Evapotranspiration in the Soil-Plant-Atmosphere System

262 Pages·2012·2.006 MB·English

by  Viliam Novák (auth.)

Evapotranspiration in the Soil-Plant-Atmosphere
System
Progress in Soil Science
Series Editors:
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The Netherlands
Alex B. McBratney, Faculty of Agriculture, Food & Natural Resources,
The University of Sydney, Australia
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Forfurther volumes:
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Viliam Nova´k
Evapotranspiration
in the Soil-Plant-Atmosphere
System
ViliamNova´k
InstituteofHydrology
SlovakAcademyofSciences
Bratislava,Slovakia
ISBN978-94-007-3839-3 ISBN978-94-007-3840-9(eBook)
DOI10.1007/978-94-007-3840-9
SpringerDordrechtHeidelbergNewYorkLondon
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#SpringerScience+BusinessMediaDordrecht2012
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Preface
Evapotranspiration is the process of water transport from evaporating surfaces to
the atmosphere. Evaporating surfaces can be plant surfaces (intercepted water),
substomatal cavities and cuticle tissue (transpiration), soil, the water table, or
impermeable surfaces.Themostimportant process is transpiration, the process of
water movement from the soil to and through the plant, and further on to the
atmosphere.Thisprocessispartofbiomassproduction.
Onaverage,about60%ofprecipitationreachingthelandsurfaceevaporates;in
dryregionsthisratioishigherandcanreachupto90%oftheannualrainfall.
Evapotranspirationisaninvisibleandcomplicatedprocess;itsstudyisdifficult.
Quantification of evapotranspiration involves numerous fields of science, such as
hydropedology, soil hydrology, plant physiology, and meteorology. The impor-
tance of the evapotranspiration process, particularly for biomass production, pro-
voked its study and broad research. However, only a few books describe this
process.Amongthem,thosethatstronglyinfluencedspecialistswereEvaporation
inNaturebyBudagovskij(1964)forthosewhoreadRussian;andEvaporationinto
the Atmosphere by Brutsaert (1982) for those who read English. Within the
framework of the series, benchmark papers were republished in hydrology
(2007), and evaporation (Gash and Shuttleworth, eds), as well as basic literature
abouttheevaporationprocess.
Thesepublicationsanalyzeevapotranspirationasaprocessofwatermovement
fromevaporatingsurfacestotheatmosphere.However,watermovementfromthe
soil to the evaporating surface or roots, and water extraction by roots and water
movementtoaplant’sleavesarementionedonlymarginally.
Awidevarietyofmethodsforthecalculationofevapotranspirationasawhole,
as well as the components of its structure (e.g., transpiration, evaporation) have
alreadybeenpublished.
The aim of this book is to focus attention primarily on water movement in the
soil root zone and soil water extraction by roots. I also hope this volume will
contributetobroadeningstudyandresearchintothefieldofsoilphysics.
v
vi Preface
Finally,Iwouldliketoacknowledgetheassistanceofmycolleagues.Comple-
tion of this interdisciplinary-oriented book required much of their effort and
patience.
InstituteofHydrology ViliamNova´k
SlovakAcademyofSciences
Bratislava,Slovakia
Contents
1 Evapotranspiration:AComponentoftheWaterCycle. . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 TheEvaporationProcessandItsBasicProperties. . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 EvaporationandtheKineticTheoryofFluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 WaterBalanceandWaterCycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 EnergyBalanceoftheEvaporationArea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Soil-Plant-AtmosphereSystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 SoilandOtherPartsoftheEarth’sSurface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.1 BasicSoilProperties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Canopy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.1 WaterVaporintheAtmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.2 Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.3 CarbonDioxide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.4 SoilSolute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3 EvaporationfromDifferentSurfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1 EvaporationofInterceptedWater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 EvaporationfromFreeWaterSurfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 EvaporationfromSnowandIce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4 EvaporationfromUrbanTerritories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Transpiration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5.1 TransportofWaterThroughPlantsDuring
Transpiration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.6 PotentialEvapotranspiration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.6.1 AnalysisoftheProcess. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.6.2 PotentialEvapotranspirationIndex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
vii
viii Contents
4 TransportofWaterandEnergyintheBoundaryLayer
oftheAtmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1 MeteorologicalCharacteristicsoftheBoundaryLayer
oftheAtmosphereVerticalDistribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1.1 WindProfiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.1.2 RoughnessLengthz andZeroPlaneDisplacementd
o e
oftheCanopyEstimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1.3 AirTemperatureProfilesintheBoundaryLayer
oftheAtmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1.4 VerticalDistributionofAirHumidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2 CoefficientsofHeatandWaterVaporTransportintheSPAS. . . 44
4.2.1 TheInfluenceoftheStateoftheAtmosphere
onTransportProcessesintheBoundaryLayer
ofAtmosphereintheHeightInterval(z ,z). . . . . . . . . . 48
o
4.2.2 TransportCoefficientsintheHeightInterval(0,z). . . . . 50
4.2.3 TransportCoefficientsoftheAirLayers(0,z )and
o
(z ,z)atNeutralStateoftheAtmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . 52
o
4.2.4 TheInfluenceoftheStateoftheAtmosphere
onCoefficientofTurbulentTransportandontheRate
ofPotentialEvapotranspiration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5 MovementofWaterinSoilDuringEvaporation. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. 59
5.1 BareSoilEvaporation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2 SoilWaterContentProfilesDuringBareSoilEvaporation. . . . . 64
5.2.1 SoilWaterContentProfilesUnderIsothermal
Conditions.. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. 64
5.2.2 SoilWaterContentProfilesUnderNonisothermal
Conditions.. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. 65
5.2.3 TransitofWaterfromGroundwatertotheAtmosphere. . 67
5.3 TransportofWaterandHeatinanUnsaturatedPorousMedia. . . 68
5.3.1 TheoryofNonisothermalSoilWaterTransport. . . . . . . . 68
5.3.2 EquationsDescribingtheNonisothermalTransport
ofWaterandWaterVaporinPorousMedia. . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3.3 WaterVaporTransport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.3.4 SoilHeatTransport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.4 SoilWaterTransportQuantificationinIsothermalConditions. . . 74
5.5 SystemofEquationsDescribingtheTransportofHeat
andWaterinPorousMedia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.5.1 TheSolutionoftheEquationsDescribingtheTransport
ofHeatandWaterinPorousMedia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.5.2 SoilWaterContentProfilesDuringEvaporation:
ApproximateSolutionoftheTransportEquation. . . . . . . 76
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Contents ix
6 MovementofWaterintheSoilRootZoneDuringTranspiration. . 85
6.1 WaterinaSoilRootZone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.1.1 WaterUptakebyPlantRoots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.1.2 WaterMovementinaSoil–RootSystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.2 RootsSystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.2.1 RootGrowth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.2.2 SpatialRootVariability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.2.3 VerticalDistributionofRootProperties. . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.2.4 InfluenceoftheMostImportantSoilProperties
ontheRootSystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.2.5 RootSystemandWaterinSoil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.2.6 InfluenceofSolubleSubstancesonRootSystems. . . . . . 98
6.2.7 InfluenceofPhysicalSoilProperties
ontheRootSystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.2.8 InfluenceofSoilTemperatureonRootGrowth. . . . . . . . 100
6.3 FieldMeasurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3.1 WaterUptakePatternEstimationUsingWater
ContentProfiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3.2 WaterUptakePatternDistributionCalculations
fromFieldMeasurementResults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.3.3 VerticalDistributionoftheWaterUptakeRates
byRootsDuringtheSeason. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.4 MethodsofCalculatingSoilWaterUptakePatterns. . . . . . . . . . 108
6.4.1 ProposedMethodforCalculationofWaterUptake
RatebyRoots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.4.2 CalculationofS(z)DuringPotentialTranspiration. . . . . . 112
6.4.3 CalculationofS(z)DuringTranspirationLimited
bySoilWaterPotential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.5 MesoscopicApproachtoWaterUptakebyPlantRoots. . . . . . . . 119
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7 TheRoleofPlantsinTransportProcessesintheSoil-Plant-
AtmosphereSystem.. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. 127
7.1 TransportofWaterfromSoilThroughPlantstotheAtmosphere
andItsQuantification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.1.1 WaterTransportinPlants. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. 130
7.1.2 TransportofWaterVapor,CO ,andHeatfromLeaves
2
totheAtmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.2 TranspirationControlbyStomata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.3 CanopyandStomataConductivityDuringTranspiration. . . . . . . 135
7.3.1 StomataResistances—TheInfluence
oftheEnvironment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.3.2 GeneralizedRelationshipsBetweenStomata
ResistancesandPropertiesofEnvironment. . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.3.3 ResistancesofLeavesandCanopiesforWaterVapor
MovementtotheAtmosphere. . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. 140
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
x Contents
8 EvapotranspirationandSoilWater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.1 EvapotranspirationandSoilWaterContent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.2 EvapotranspirationandSoilWaterPotential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.3 TranspirationandUptakeofWaterbyRootsDuringCombined
WaterandSalinityStress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
9 MethodsofEvapotranspirationEstimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.1 EvapotranspirationMeasurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.1.1 EvapotranspirationMeasurementbyLysimeters. . . . . 167
9.2 MethodsofEvapotranspirationCalculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.2.1 EvapotranspirationCalculationbytheWaterBalance
MethodintheField. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.3 MicrometeorologicalMethodsofEvapotranspiration
Estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.3.1 MethodofTurbulentDiffusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.3.2 EvapotranspirationEstimationbytheEnergy
BalanceMethod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.3.3 CombinationMethodofPotentialEvaporation
Calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9.3.4 CropPotentialEvapotranspirationCalculation
bytheSolutionofEquationsDescribingtheTransport
ofEnergyandWaterinaCanopy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.3.5 ComponentsofPotentialEvapotranspiration. . . . . . . . 190
9.3.6 EvapotranspirationCalculationbyCombination
Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
9.3.7 EddyCorrelationMethodtoEstimate
Evapotranspiration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
9.4 MeasurementandEvaluationofSapFlowDatainTrees
andStandstoEvaluatetheTranspirationRate. . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
9.4.1 MainMethodsAppliedforSapFlowMeasurements. . 207
9.4.2 TrunkSegmentHeatBalanceMethod. . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
9.4.3 UpscalingofTranspirationfromSample
PlantstoStands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
10 EvapotranspirationComponentsStructure. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. 217
10.1 PotentialEvapotranspirationComponentsStructure. . . . . . . . . 218
10.2 ComponentsofEvapotranspiration:Daily
andSeasonalCourses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
10.2.1 DailyCoursesofEvapotranspirationComponents. . . . 221
10.2.2 SeasonalCoursesofEvapotranspirationComponents. . 223
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225