European Dictatorships 1918-1945

495 Pages·2016·6.837 MB·English

by  Stephen J. Lee

European Dictatorships
1918–1945
Fourth edition
European Dictatorships 1918–1945surveys the extraordinary circumstances leading to, and
arising from, the transformation of over half of Europe’s states to dictatorships between the
First and the Second World Wars. From the notorious dictatorships of Mussolini, Hitler
and Stalin to less well-known states and leaders, Stephen J. Lee scrutinizes the experiences
of Russia, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal and central and eastern European states.
This fourth edition has been fully revised and updated throughout. New material for this
edition includes:
(cid:129) the most recent research on individual dictatorships
(cid:129) a new chapter on the experiences of Europe’s democracies at the hands of Germany,
Italy and Russia
(cid:129) an expanded chapter on Spain
(cid:129) a new section on dictatorships beyond Europe, exploring the European and indigenous
roots of dictatorships in Latin America, Asia and Africa.
Extensively illustrated with images, maps, tables and a comparative timeline, and
supported by a companion website providing further resources for study (www.routledge.
com/cw/lee), European Dictatorships 1918–1945 is a clear, detailed and highly accessible
analysis of the tumultuous events of early twentieth-century Europe.
Stephen J. Lee was Head of History at Bromsgrove School in Birmingham, UK. His
publications include Russia and the USSR(Routledge, 2005) and Hitler and Nazi Germany,
2nd edition (Routledge, 2008).
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European Dictatorships
1918–1945
Fourth edition
Stephen J. Lee
Fourth edition published 2016
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2016 Stephen J. Lee
The right of Stephen J. Lee to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying
and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification
and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published 1987 by Methuen & Co. Ltd.
Second edition published 2000 by Routledge
Third edition published 2008 by Routledge
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Lee, Stephen J., 1945–
Title: European dictatorships, 1918–1945 / Stephen J. Lee.
Description: Fourth edition. | Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon : Routledge, 2016.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015050291| ISBN 9780415736138 (hardback : alkaline paper)
ISBN 9780415736145 (paperback : alkaline paper) | ISBN 9781315646176 (ebook)
LCSH: Europe—Politics and government—1918–1945. |
Dictators—Europe—History—20th century. |
Dictatorship—Europe—History—20th century.
Classification: LCC D727 .L37 2016 | DDC 320.444—dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015050291
ISBN: 978-0-415-73613-8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-415-73614-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-64617-6 (ebk)
Typeset in Times New Roman and Gill Sans
by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK
Additional materials are available on the companion website at www.routledge.com/cw/lee
Again, for Margaret and Charlotte
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Contents
List of illustrations xi
Dictatorships: comparative timeline 1918–45 xii
Preface xvii
Prologue: the seventeen dictatorships, 1918–45 1
1 The setting for dictatorship 5
The period before 1914 5
The impact of the First World War 8
The peace settlement and its significance 11
The crisis of democracy 14
The role of modernity? 17
The economic catalyst 19
2 Types of dictatorship 23
Dictatorship as a concept 23
Totalitarian or authoritarian regimes? 24
The ideological basis of dictatorship 28
Summary 34
3 Dictatorship in Russia 36
Lenin’s regime, 1917–24 36
The succession, 1924–9 54
Stalin’s rule to 1941 59
Soviet foreign policy, 1918–41 84
The Great Patriotic War, 1941–5 91
1945–53: mature dictatorship? 102
Reflections on Stalin’s dictatorship 108
4 Dictatorship in Italy 114
The rise of Mussolini to 1922: an outline 114
viii Contents
The rise of Mussolini to 1922: an explanation 115
Mussolini’s dictatorship, 1922–43 122
Mussolini’s foreign policy, 1922–40 146
War and collapse, 1940–5 157
The Italian Social Republic (RSI), 1943–5 163
Reflections on Mussolini’s dictatorship 166
5 Dictatorship in Germany 171
The Weimar Republic and the rise of Hitler, 1918–33 171
Explanations of the rise of Hitler 177
The Third Reich, 1933–45 186
German foreign policy, 1919–39 227
Germany at war, 1939–45 238
The Holocaust 248
Reflections on Hitler’s dictatorship 260
6 Dictatorship in Spain 266
Dictatorship to republic, 1923–30 266
Republic to dictatorship, 1931–9 269
Sides and issues in the Spanish Civil War 272
The outside world and the Spanish Civil War 280
The outcome and impact of the Spanish Civil War 285
Franco’s regime, 1939–75 292
Reflections on Franco’s war and regime 297
7 Dictatorship elsewhere 304
Dictatorship in south-western Europe 304
Dictatorship in central and eastern Europe 315
Dictatorship in the Balkans and Turkey 336
Dictatorships beyond Europe 361
8 Dictatorships vs democracies 369
Seven democracies destroyed 369
Three democracies marginalized 389
Two democracies defiant 395
9 Dictatorships compared 405
The role of ideology 405
Leadership 408
State, party and army 410
Social control 412
Contents ix
Security and terror 416
Economies 418
Impact of war 420
Epilogue: Europe since 1945 424
Notes 427
Select bibliography 455
Index 464