PALGRAVE STUDIES IN EUROPEAN UNION POLITICS Series Editors: Michelle Egan, Neill Nugent and William E. Paterson EUROPE AND IRAN’S NUCLEAR CRISIS Lead Groups and EU Foreign Policy-Making Riccardo Alcaro Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics Series Editors Michelle Egan American University Washington, DC, USA Neill Nugent Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester, UK William E. Paterson Aston University Birmingham, UK Following on the sustained success of the acclaimed European Union Series, which essentially publishes research-based textbooks, Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics publishes cutting edge research-driven monographs. The remit of the series is broadly defined, both in terms of subject and academic discipline. All topics of significance concerning the nature and operation of the European Union potentially fall within the scope of the series. The series is multidisciplinary to reflect the growing importance of the European Union as a political, economic and social phenomenon. More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14629 Riccardo Alcaro Europe and Iran’s Nuclear Crisis Lead Groups and EU Foreign Policy-Making Riccardo Alcaro Istituto Affari Internazionali Rome, Italy Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics ISBN 978-3-319-74297-7 ISBN 978-3-319-74298-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74298-4 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018933587 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: US State Department / Alamy Stock Photo Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland A cknowledgements This book is the culmination of many years of work. It all started in 2008, when I was awarded a grant by the European Foreign and Security Policy Studies (EFSPS) programme to carry out a research project on Europe’s role in the Iranian nuclear crisis. Several people helped me throughout this period. My thanks go first to Prof. Thomas Diez from the University of Tübingen, and his never ending patience. His advice was instrumental in supporting me when my research seemed to have lost direction and in making that research more solid and coherent, both in its theory and empirical parts. My thanks also go to Nathalie Tocci, a friend and long- time colleague at the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI) in Rome—and now its director. Nathalie’s sharp mind and deep grasp of how EU foreign policy works helped me fill the gaps in the early versions of my work. There are many other people among IAI’s team to whom I owe my grati- tude: Daniela Huber, who took the time to read the book and gave me invaluable suggestions on how to improve the theory chapter; Alessandra Bertino, IAI’s irreplaceable librarian, who never failed to find the source materials I desperately needed; and Ettore Greco, IAI’s former director, who granted me the opportunity to dedicate part of my working time to writing this book. The many officials from France, Germany, Italy, the UK and EU institutions whom I interviewed deserve a special mention. Without their insights this book would have never been possible. Finally, I am indebted to the team at Palgrave Macmillan, in particular Imogen Gordon Clark and Ambra Finotello, for their patience and assistance, as well as to the anonymous reviewer for the pointed, but always pertinent and constructive, remarks. v c ontents 1 Introduction: The E3/EU Iran Group 1 Part I Theory and History 21 2 The Theory: Lead Groups and EU Foreign Policy-Making 23 3 The History: The 2003–16 Iran Nuclear Crisis 59 Part II The Creation and Endurance of the E3/EU 91 4 The Bargain: How the E3/EU Came About 93 5 The Discourse: Why the E3/EU Endured 117 Part III The E3/EU in Action 141 6 The Premise: The Underneath Continuity in the E3/EU’s Iran Policy 143 vii viii CoNTENTS 7 The Action/1: E3 Leadership and EU Ownership 157 8 The Action/2: The E3/EU and the United States 181 9 The Outcome: The E3/EU as Identity Shapers 203 10 Conclusion: The E3/EU and EU Foreign Policy 225 Appendix: Timeline of Iran’s Nuclear Crisis 2002–16 243 Bibliography 253 Index 281 A bbreviAtions AEoI Atomic Energy organisation of Iran Brexit British exit from the European Union CBI Central Bank of Iran CFSP Common Foreign and Security Policy (EU) CIA Central Intelligence Agency (US) CISADA Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability and Divestment Act (US) E3 France, Germany and the United Kingdom E3/EU France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the High Representative for CFSP (later Foreign Affairs and Security Policy) (EU) E3/EU+3 France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the High Representative plus China, Russia and the United States ESS European Security Strategy (EU) EU European Union EUGS European Union Global Strategy FAC Foreign Affairs Council (formerly GAERC) (EU) FCo Foreign and Commonwealth office (UK) GAERC General Affairs and External Relations Council (later FAC) (EU) GCC Gulf Cooperation Council HEU Highly Enriched Uranium HR High Representative for CFSP (later for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy) (EU) IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency ix x ABBREvIATIoNS ILSA Iran-Libya Sanctions Act (later ISA) (US) INARA Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act (US) IRGC Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (Iran) IRISL Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Line ISA Iran Sanctions Act (formerly ILSA) (US) JCPoA Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (E3/EU+3-Iran final nuclear deal) JPoA Joint Plan of Action (E3/EU+3-Iran interim nuclear deal) LEU Low-Enriched Uranium LWR Light Water Reactor MEPP Middle East Peace Process NCRI National Council of Resistance of Iran NDAA National Defence Authorisation Act (US) NIE National Intelligence Estimate (US) NIoC National Iranian oil Company NPT Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty NSS National Security Strategy (US) P5+1 China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States plus Germany (and the European Union), officially E3/EU+3 PDA Political Dialogue Agreement (EU) PMDs Potential Military Dimensions of Iran’s Nuclear Programme PSC Political and Security Committee (EU) R&D Research and Development SNSC Supreme National Security Council (Iran) TCA Trade and Cooperation Agreement (EU) TEU Treaty on the European Union UF Uranium Hexafluoride 6 UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNGA United Nations General Assembly UNSC United Nations Security Council UNSCR United Nations Security Council Resolution US United States WMD Weapons of Mass Destruction