ETHNOLINGUISTIC VITALITY AND LANGUAGE BEHAVIOR AMO

429 Pages·2007·2.06 MB·English

CAN MINORITY LANGUAGES SURVIVE IN A SITUATION OF SUSTAINED
BILINGUALISM? ETHNOLINGUISTIC VITALITY AND LANGUAGE BEHAVIOR
AMONG INDIGENOUS SPEAKERS OF QUICHUA IN ECUADOR

by
Sonia Lenk
Licenciatura, Universidad Católica del Ecuador, 1987
Master of Arts, Bowling Green State University, 1996
Master of Education, Bowling Green State University, 1996

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the
University of Pittsburgh in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

University of Pittsburgh

2007
thA?
UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

This dissertation was presented

by

Sonia Lenk

It was defended on
April 9, 2007
and approved by
Pascual Masullo, Associate Professor, Department of Linguistics
Elaine Rubinstein, Adjunct Assistant Professor, Department of Health Information
Management, School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Office of Measurement and
Evaluation Teaching
Bruce Stiehm, Associate Professor Emeritus, Department of Hispanic Languages and
Literatures

Dissertation Advisor/Director: Robert DeKeyser, Professor, Program in Second Language
Acquisition, School of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures, University of Maryland

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Copyright © by Sonia Lenk
2007

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CAN MINORITY LANGUAGES SURVIVE IN A SITUATION OF SUSTAINED
BILINGUALISM? ETHNOLINGUISTIC VITALITY AND LANGUAGE BEHAVIOR
AMONG INDIGENOUS SPEAKERS OF QUICHUA IN ECUADOR

Sonia Lenk, PhD
University of Pittsburgh, 2007
Abstract

In this study, I examine the sociological, socio-psychological, and psychological domains of two
Quichua-speaking communities—one urban and one rural—in Imbabura, Ecuador. The goal of
the study is to determine the ethnolinguistic vitality (EV) of these two groups, and, ultimately, to
predict whether a situation of language maintenance or language shift will prevail. Previous
studies of EV have considered one of these three domains, but very few have considered all
three. Furthermore, none has sought to measure ethnolinguistic vitality in the Quichua context.
This study examines the role of various factors, particularly the individual network of linguistic
contacts, in the survival of a particular language and ethnic group.
Giles, Bourhis, and Taylor introduced the notion of ethnolinguistic vitality—defined as
“…that which makes a group likely to behave as a distinctive and active collective entity in
intergroup situations” (1977, p. 308)—in the late 1970s as a theoretical framework for analyzing
intergroup relations within a contact situation. Those with little vitality eventually cease to exist
as distinctive linguistic groups within the intergroup setting.
Allard and Landry (1987) developed a macroscopic model, including Giles et al.’s notions of
objective (sociological level) and subjective (psychological level) EV, and adding to them the
notion of individual networks of linguistic contacts (socio-psychological level) to mediate
between the other two levels. This macroscopic model is the one I have followed in this study.

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To examine the sociological level, I used census and descriptive data. To investigate both the
socio-psychological and the psychological levels, I used quantitative and qualitative approaches.
I employed questionnaires, orally administered to a sample of 100 Indigenous persons between
the ages of 18 and 25, and six elite interviews with Indigenous leaders.
The findings of this study reveal the importance of the individual network of linguistic
contacts for maintenance of a stable bilingual situation. At the same time they reveal the
pervasive influence of the dominant language and culture, which threatens to undermine efforts
to maintain and revitalize the ethnic language. Only with considerable planning and effort will
these two communities be able to maintain Quichua in a stable bilingual situation.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ......................................................................................................................XIV
1.0 CHAPTER 1. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE
REVIEW..........................................................................................................1
1.1 INTRODUCTION: LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE........................1
1.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK.....................................................10
1.2.1 The Interactive Acculturation Model (IAM).....................................10
1.2.1.1 Acculturation Orientations from the Perspective of Subordinate
Groups.................................................................................................12
1.2.1.2 Acculturation Orientations from the Perspective of Superordinate
Groups.................................................................................................14
1.2.1.3 Agreement or Disagreement Between Superordinate and
Subordinate Group Orientations......................................................15
1.2.1.4 Acculturation Orientation from the Perspective of the State.........16
1.2.1.5 Superordinate Group Alignment with State Acculturation Policies
..............................................................................................................17
1.2.1.6 U.N. Mandate for Multicultural Policies..........................................18
1.2.2 Social identity theory...........................................................................19
1.2.3 Ethnolinguistic Vitality........................................................................24
1.2.3.1 Demographic Factors.........................................................................28
1.2.3.2 Institutional Support Factors............................................................30
1.2.3.3 Status Factors......................................................................................36
1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................39
2.0 CHAPTER 2. METHODOLOGY...............................................................59
2.1 CENSUS & DESCRIPTIVE DATA PART.......................................61
2.2 QUANTITATIVE PART....................................................................62
2.2.1 Participants...........................................................................................62
2.2.2 Quantitative Instrument: Questionnaires..........................................63
2.2.2.1 Questions on the Background of Respondents.................................63
2.2.2.2 Questions on Language Use of Respondents....................................64
2.2.2.3 Socio-Psychological Factors...............................................................64
2.2.2.4 Psychological Level.............................................................................68
2.2.3 Validity and Reliability of Allard and Landry’s Beliefs on
Ethnolinguistic Vitality Questionnaires and Networks of Linguistic
Contacts Questionnaires......................................................................73
2.2.3.1 Validity of the BEVQ..........................................................................74
2.2.3.2 Reliability of the BEVQ......................................................................77
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2.2.4 Procedure..............................................................................................79
2.2.5 Scoring of Results.................................................................................82
2.2.5.1 Scoring of Socio-Psychological Factors............................................82
2.2.5.2 Scoring of Psychological Factors.......................................................83
2.3 QUALITATIVE PART.......................................................................84
2.3.1 Rationale for Conducting Elite Interviews........................................84
2.3.2 Participants in Elite Interviews and Their Affiliations....................85
3.0 CHAPTER 3. SOCIOLOGICAL LEVEL: OVERVIEW OF THE
ECUADORIAN CONTEXT........................................................................90
3.1 DEMOGRAPHIC CAPITAL.............................................................91
3.1.1 Demographic Capital in Ecuador.......................................................91
3.1.2 Demographics of Quechua/Quichua..................................................93
3.1.3 Demographics of Otavalo and Cotacachi..........................................93
3.1.4 Changing Demographics.....................................................................96
3.2 POLITICAL CAPITAL......................................................................97
3.2.1 The Indigenous Movement in Ecuador..............................................97
3.2.2 Local Political Organizations and Representatives........................102
3.3 ECONOMIC CAPITAL....................................................................104
3.3.1 Economic Overview...........................................................................105
3.3.2 Economic Situation in the Cantones of Otavalo and Cotacachi....108
3.4 CULTURAL CAPITAL....................................................................111
3.4.1 Education............................................................................................112
3.4.2 Religion...............................................................................................116
3.4.3 Customs, Traditions, and Celebrations...........................................118
3.4.4 Media...................................................................................................119
3.4.4.1 Newspapers........................................................................................120
3.4.4.2 Television...........................................................................................120
3.4.4.3 Cinema...............................................................................................120
3.4.4.4 Radio..................................................................................................121
3.5 CONCLUSION..................................................................................122
4.0 CHAPTER 4. RESULTS AND ANALYSES: QUANTITATIVE
APPROACH................................................................................................125
4.1 RELIABILITY OF THE SUBSCALES OF THE
QUESTIONNAIRES.........................................................................125
4.1.1 Reliability of the Individual Network of Linguistic Contacts,
Linguistic Contacts Through Education, and Linguistic Contacts
Through Media Questionnaires........................................................126
4.1.2 Reliability of the Beliefs on Ethnolinguistic Vitality Questionnaire...
............................................................................................................127
4.1.3 Level of Significance..........................................................................128
4.2 SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
ON RESPONDENTS.........................................................................128
4.2.1 Language Respondents Chose to Use in Answering the
Questionnaires....................................................................................128
4.2.2 First and Second Languages Spoken by Respondents...................129
4.2.3 First and Second Languages Spoken by Fathers of Respondents.130
4.2.4 First and Second Languages Spoken by Mothers of Respondents 131
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4.2.5 Level of Education of Respondents..................................................132
4.2.6 Level of Education of Fathers of Respondents................................133
4.2.7 Level of Education of Mothers of Respondents..............................134
4.2.8 Type of Work Performed by Fathers of Respondents....................135
4.2.9 Type of Work Performed by Mothers of Respondents..................136
4.3 SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS........................................137
4.3.1 Individual Network of Linguistic Contacts.....................................138
4.3.1.1 Results of the Different Subscales of the Individual Network of
Linguistic Contacts Questionnaire..................................................138
4.3.1.2 Correlations Between Subscales of the Individual Network of
Linguistic Contacts Questionnaire and Degree of Standardization
of Quichua and Spanish...................................................................147
4.3.2 Linguistic Contacts Through Education..........................................149
4.3.2.1 Results of the Linguistic Contacts Through Education
Questionnaire....................................................................................149
4.3.2.2 Correlations Between Subscales of the Linguistic Contacts Through
Education Questionnaire and Degree of Standardization of
Quichua and Spanish........................................................................152
4.3.3 Linguistic Contacts Through Media................................................153
4.3.3.1 Results of the Linguistic Contacts Through Media Questionnaire
............................................................................................................153
4.3.3.2 Correlations Between Quichua and Spanish Linguistic Contacts
Through Media and Degree of Standardization of Quichua and
Spanish...............................................................................................155
4.4 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS......................................................156
4.4.1 Results for the Different Subscales of the Beliefs on Ethnolinguistic
Vitality Questionnaire (BEVQ)........................................................157
4.4.1.1 Results for the Subscales of General Beliefs on Ethnolinguistic
Vitality...............................................................................................159
4.4.1.2 Results for the Subscales of Personal Beliefs on Ethnolinguistic
Vitality...............................................................................................161
4.4.2 Results for Factual Beliefs and Desired Beliefs...............................163
4.4.3 Results for Exocentric Beliefs and Egocentric Beliefs....................164
4.4.4 Correlations Between Subscales of the Beliefs on Ethnolinguistic
Vitality Questionnaire and Degree of Standardization of Quichua
and Spanish........................................................................................166
4.4.5 Correlations Between Exocentric and Egocentric Beliefs on the
Ethnolinguistic Vitality of Quichua and Spanish and Degree of
Standardization of Quichua and Spanish........................................167
4.4.6 Results of Correlations Between Factual and Desired Beliefs on the
Ethnolinguistic Vitality of Quichua and Spanish and Degree of
Standardization of Quichua and Spanish........................................169
5.0 CHAPTER 5. RESULTS: QUALITATIVE PART.................................171
5.1 POLITICAL SITUATION OF THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES..172
5.1.1 Differing Concepts of Politics Among Western and Indigenous
Peoples.................................................................................................173
5.1.2 Politics as an Opportunity to Create a Space for Dialogue............178
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5.1.3 Indigenous Incursion into Politics....................................................179
5.1.3.1 Ecuadorian Society’s Perspective on Indigenous Political
Participation......................................................................................179
5.1.3.2 Indigenous Perspectives on Political Participation........................183
5.2 ECONOMIC SITUATION...............................................................189
5.3 BILINGUAL EDUCATION.............................................................192
5.3.1 The Creation and Objectives of Bilingual Education in Ecuador.193
5.3.2 Supporting and Inhibiting Factors in the Development of Bilingual
Education............................................................................................195
5.3.2.1 Support and Neglect on the Part of the Ecuadorian Government195
5.3.2.2 Support from Non-Governmental Organizations..........................196
5.3.3 Pros and Cons of Bilingual Intercultural Education......................197
5.3.3.1 Achievements of Bilingual Intercultural Education......................197
5.3.3.2 Future Goals and Improvements for Intercultural Bilingual
Education...........................................................................................201
5.3.4 Considerations for Choosing Between Bilingual and Hispanic
Schools.................................................................................................205
5.3.5 Specific Projects to Improve IBE.....................................................208
5.3.5.1 Creation of Infrastructure...............................................................208
5.3.5.2 Training and Evaluation of Teachers.............................................208
5.3.6 The Struggle for Acceptance of Indigenous Cultures in Hispanic
Schools.................................................................................................210
5.4 USE OF QUICHUA IN THE SCHOOLS........................................210
5.4.1 Bilingual Education as a Means of Revitalizing the Use of Quichua..
............................................................................................................211
5.4.2 Issues in the Implementation of Instruction in Quichua................212
5.4.3 Existent and Nonexistent resources in the Quichua Language.....214
5.4.3.1 Nonexistent Resources......................................................................214
5.4.3.2 Existent Resources............................................................................215
5.4.4 Expanding Domains...........................................................................216
5.4.4.1 Use of the Two Languages in Organizations and Institutions......217
5.4.4.2 Use of Quichua in Public in the Presence of Mestizos...................218
5.4.4.3 A Step Forward: From Oral Tradition to Literacy.......................219
5.4.4.4 Creating a Space for Quichua in Mass Media...............................220
5.5 LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE.......................................................222
5.5.1 Language Maintenance Through Interaction.................................222
5.5.2 Use of Quichua to Interact with Indigenous Persons from Rural
Areas....................................................................................................222
5.6 SYMBOLS OF IDENTITY...............................................................223
5.7 INTERCULTURALITY AND GLOBALIZATION......................229
6.0 CHAPTER 6. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION.....................................232
6.1 PERSONAL BACKGROUND FACTORS AND THE
ETHNOLINGUISTIC VITALITY OF THE KICHWA................232
6.2 SOCIOLOGICAL LEVEL VARIABLES (DEMOGRAPHIC
CAPITAL, CULTURAL CAPITAL, POLITICAL CAPITAL, AND
ECONOMIC CAPITAL)..................................................................236
6.2.1 Sociological Level Variables: Demographic Capital.....................237
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6.2.2 Sociological Level Variables: Cultural Capital..............................239
6.2.3 Sociological Level Variables: Economic Capital.............................241
6.2.4 Sociological Level Variables: Political Capital...............................243
6.2.5 Sociological Level Variables: Their Relative Influence.................244
6.3 SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL LEVEL VARIABLES (INDIVIDUAL
NETWORK OF LINGUISTIC CONTACTS, CONTACTS
THROUGH EDUCATION, AND CONTACTS THROUGH
MEDIA)..............................................................................................249
6.3.1 Socio-Psychological Level Variables: Individual Network of
Linguistic Contacts............................................................................250
6.3.2 Socio-Psychological Level Variables: Contacts Through Education..
............................................................................................................258
6.3.3 Socio-Psychological Level Variables: Contacts Through Media...260
6.4 PSYCHOLOGICAL LEVEL VARIABLES (INDIVIDUAL
BELIEFS ON ETHNOLINGUISTIC VITALITY)........................261
6.4.1 Individual Beliefs on Ethnolinguistic Vitality: General Beliefs,
Normative Beliefs, Personal Beliefs, and Goal Beliefs....................262
6.4.2 Individual Beliefs on Ethnolinguistic Vitality: Egocentric Beliefs and
Exocentric Beliefs...............................................................................272
6.4.3 Individual Beliefs on Ethnolinguistic Vitality: Factual Beliefs and
Desired Beliefs....................................................................................273
6.4.4 Individual Beliefs on Ethnolinguistic Vitality: Importance of the
Different Beliefs..................................................................................274
APPENDIX B1: LANGUAGE VARIETY.............................................................................277
APPENDIX B2: LANGUAGE VARIETY.............................................................................279
APPENDIX B3: LANGUAGE VARIETY.............................................................................281
APPENDIX C1: INDIVIDUAL NETWORK OF LINGUISTIC CONTACTS (INLC)....283
APPENDIX C2: INDIVIDUAL NETWORK OF LINGUISTIC CONTACTS (INLC)....291
APPENDIX C3: INDIVIDUAL NETWORK OF LINGUISTIC CONTACTS (INLC)....300
APPENDIX D1: LINGUISTIC CONTACTS THROUGH EDUCATION (LCE).............308
APPENDIX D2: LINGUISTIC CONTACTS THROUGH EDUCATION (LCE).............316
APPENDIX D3: LINGUISTIC CONTACTS THROUGH EDUCATION (LCE).............324
APPENDIX E1: LINGUISTIC CONTACTS THROUGH MEDIA (LCM).......................332
APPENDIX E2: LINGUISITC CONTACTS THROUGH MEDIA (LCM).......................334
APPENDIX E3: CONTACTS THROUGH MEDIA (LCM)................................................336
APPENDIX F1 : BELIEFS ON ETHNOLINGUISTIC VITALITY QUESTIONNAIRE
(BEVQ).........................................................................................................339
APPENDIX F2: BELIEFS ON ETHNOLINGUISTIC VITALITY QUESTIONNAIRE
(BEVQ).........................................................................................................365
APPENDIX F3: BELIEFS ON ETHNOLINGUISTIC VITALITY QUESTIONNAIRE
(BEVQ).........................................................................................................382
APPENDIX G: NOTES TO USERS OF THE BELIEFS ON ETHNOLINGUISTIC
VITALITY QUESTIONNAIRE................................................................394
REFERENCE LIST..................................................................................................................399

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