Essentials of Psychology

835 Pages·2006·29.193 MB·English

by  Douglas Bernstein, Peggy W. Nash

ESSENTIALS
of
PSYCHOLOGY
ESSENTIALS
of PSYCHOLOGY
Essentials of Psychology,Fourth Edition, Action sections,a review of key terms,
offers an integrated pedagogical system and multiple-choice questions.
designed to help students get the most out
of their reading.Hallmark features include Two optional chapters on Industrial/
an outline, a preview statement, preview Organizational Psychologyand
questions, instructional captions, In Review Neuropsychologycan be packaged
charts, and a marginal glossary. Each with the text upon request.Please
chapter ends with an Active Review that consult your sales representative
includes a Linkages diagram, a chapter for further details.
summary, Learn by Doing and Step into
304440_ch03_084134 /
1
3
Introduction to the
Science of Psychology
Sensation and
Perception TheS Wubofirledld osf o Pfs Pyscyhcohloolgoyg:yAn4 Overview4
Linkages Within Psychology and Beyond7
A Brief History of Psychology10
SSeennCAssioobndrsgyion alSguny tSdeset PTenhemsrraecstesiohivn8ois6lnd: gsD :t iIdhs e YS oWoumo Fereltdheli nTg8h6 aOtu?t T8h7ere?87 AppTTTTrhhhhoeeeea BEPBcvshieoyohelclsoahu vgtotioiiodco arytnalhna lAea rAy pmS ppAcipcripeo rAopnaparccohcpeahr oochf1a 14cPh6s1y5c1h6ology14
Seeing 90 The Cognitive Approach16
LFCSTCiooeghocenheluoivtonsrerigbnire 9ltgCisi0nn o Lodgliofgn LrCheisgotshl9ot49r 9i 0nV6tisoi oImnag9e4s92 HT(ohurim nTTFAihhkavneieneny IHtgQDmh uiuCipvmneraegiscatrt tinsEi coioilatssnfytle lsiS yc)a of nAoAcdirp2bo 1pCocPurrusoilytttai cucPchrahsaoly llT c1oDhh7giiovnyelkorisgni1tyg8y o2n2 Psychology19
Hearing 98 Critical Thinking and Scientific Research24
Sound98 Research Methods in Psychology26
TSheeTCnSOO ThCosmouueidhnuer rieE g cnlSSlmah ,geYe r T inanoScanssuaos9eedrtlu9 e oSonBT,fe efdoa nmSsTdnasmydpes ee1tsFerl:0lla1aT1t0avu161osr0t0ree53 a11n00d26 Smell 102 SNCSCEFLeuxaoOIaNlpsrrteverCueceKe rrtSUlayiiaAmtnlstSuig:isGe do tL nOHiinoEcetau ossSNOl:m:k :SbET i anRatxsPungekpsEd r iylPanvoSicaetgarhE rsitt nota:ihA iogl LceoCnRio pCglB:ooC aaiWicksgnuHaei tanslPrs :et gRi Lc cfS aeohotftunsooiurne rdrkdReag RyeEr Becisfn2hflee2ae6g ah7atc raiEtncovMhdni o3sDhr0R3ip52s36229
PTSaReHiennIlsiNeinv1Kge0 I 6BPNoaGdiny ? CPoR1sI0iTt9ioICnAL11L0Y:Does Acupuncture SEAtthaCticBiTsaetlhiI cGaVauvli iEAodren alaliR nlGyesEesins Vf eootrfIic PREsseyWs3ce7haorclohg4 Rise2tssult4s039
PORerergcPPcPPaSBeTrToeCeLenioiopozrgnurrIipcepcttczNncleteite- i-iooiIDnuppDpplKznlmgrtliotuoteeniAiu woswo-st,gUai hn nGoE1no nlpte xn1 of oCEh P a ps2PPfPfoerSn e reoeDn Modr:Prrcs1iec cceeePotB1epeearnseto9sptcpsincrshoteitcetcintu nenpuy,oag apgtaanmultln di1 O-1aWod1 U111Dlrn 2 7opP27gWi 2sa er1aPtolnrndarcrdoinelzd cpcaHee1ttusii1oosm13inn1n2a1g1n4 1 1To21g33ether12315 1Neur6opsyc hology
AAtteCDDFDntiiOrveThteiiveCdocIe tinBUlVinonrgSapgE i1m AnAO2 tet6tRtNne1etn2n EtR8tiio1VEon2nS5IEE1A12W28R7CH:1A2tte9ntion and IOPAPARTrsesnnaysc iKJMMMRSLADOsecrnoCereehunsesvieeebghldscsnoioseeaatyte riaiagglAwhcniugrsssolrntv uuo gsninaEliIgtguiieosrrd aiccmmenyPniis datnslnnawguyeeg epg ggno ePsroh ns lTeT idofi5sroEJsprstn, ro 9o faPt yimalSSP cnite1ibeeIciokenernn p5,sr eoRilsiiPfdiJ9llenrsscneooloe2suceegzcgry5r,lbtsssrm fie 9AiNsstuo6Pnoe2re,aaiab0errgit as6omnaCe1im l0ngcEldhia/t0egdetrmlsOa5ina ne Ar9Jcrmp/staiog8ep ,6lcya sboapat0one nynr1P5dareid6ez9i iesS 0sar5nOtsae2ftiocltiloeshrca5nme5t9rai59a o8l96nnl3ce605092 FoMNueAMenLNTcASTeu dNrAhBeoDtrTasrDaFerauardLimoCPiiDoHDotiuHsniuOrntueaIpsikooinnhreimoNeiofITslrnsoesrCep e meNtonmryAdHmgadiKsssd IrUascBee K ntyiiede afshlsnVAi6rnorlcagSocet rnyIsaoe63hot foslerrNG D d yigiE3l 2o os fPnranNOooNs 3 liyfGEalNBoeseigf oe e srNoC cSrofrei guPaRu66a tacroCtfM:e rildr4a4tw icynoR6oNrEniRL7e4alozocs26 ppoa EerlDeecIDnv9 V4sssnruTTidpSeikoy2yyegsr tmIscEcIusoaosiuC66hohftnspEAreau33ionnoAdndsng634nlRelyWeg ot2eoLcNscrC8g tgs6LhsDoiyY4Hy6oo6ti0s 4ln:36K:oo66036CngSr36663daoty4261uenw563rd S2s 6y0I ota2i?nmn7gde 6o3n8e Be
Evaluating Training Programs603
Employee Motivation604
ERG Theory605
Expectancy Theory605
Goal-Setting Theory606
Job Satisfaction606
Measuring Job Satisfaction606
Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction607
THINKING CRITICALLY:Is Job Satisfaction
Genetic?609
Consequences of Job Satisfaction610
LINKAGES:Aggression in the Workplace612
Occupational Health Psychology612
Physical Conditions Affecting Health613
Work Schedules, Health, and Safety613
Stress, Accidents, and Safety614
Work Groups and Work Teams615
Autonomous Work Teams615
Group Leadership616
FOCUS ON RESEARCH:Can People Learn to Be
Charismatic Leaders?618
ACTIVE REVIEW 619
ii
An Integrated Pedagogical System
Each chapter opens with a full outline,a briefpreview statement,and a list of preview
questionsrelated to each main section of the chapter.These preview questions are
repeated at the start of each section and within the chapter summary.
PREVIEW
Have you ever forgotten where you
parked your car? Have you ever had a name
on the tip of your tongue, but couldn’t quite recall it? Researchers in the field
of memory explore these common experiences. Memoryis a complex process
of storing and retrieving information. You use different kinds of memory for
different types of information, such as personal experiences, specific skills, and
abstract concepts. Once information is stored in your memory, recalling it can
sometimes be difficult. In this chapter, you will learn about some techniques Preview Statement
that can help you to retrieve memories. What psychologists have learned
about memory has been used to create study techniques that really work!
Reading this chapter will help you to answer the following questions:
(cid:2)How does information turn into memories? 208
(cid:2)What am I most likely to remember? 213
(cid:2)How do I retrieve stored memories? 218
(cid:2)How accurate are my memories? 222
Preview Questions
(cid:2)What causes me to forget things? 227
(cid:2)How does my brain change when I store a memory? 234
(cid:2)How can I remember more information? 237
“I’ll make him an offer he can’t refuse.”“I’ll be back.”“Trust no one.”“Life is
like a box ofchocolates.”“I see dead people.”“Show me the money.”“Is that
Forgetting your final answer?”Do you remember where you heard these words? They
are memorable lines from The Godfather,The Terminator,The X-Files,Forrest
Gump,The Sixth Sense,Jerry Maguire,and Who Wants to Be a Millionaire.Can you say
who Private Ryan was and why he needed to be saved? And do you know which clas- Preview Question
(cid:2) What causes me to forget things? sic film character said “Play it again,Sam”? (Ifyou don’t,ask a friend who knows about
old movies.) The most common answer to the latter question is Rick,the café owner
played by Humphrey Bogart in Casablanca.Bogart never actually said this often-quoted
The frustrations offorgetting—where you left your lkineey,sth,otuhghe maannys wpeeorp let oar ea s utrees tth eqy u“reemsteimobner,”it.
an anniversary—are apparent to most people nearly Yeovuer rmye mdoaryy st(oNrese viassste arm,o2un0t0s 0ofbu)s.efuLl eatn’ds not-so-useful information from all
ofyour experiences.This chapter will help you understand the nature ofmemory—
look more closely at the nature offorgetting and whhoawt ycoau ufosrems mite.mories,how memory errors happen,and how you forget.
The Nature of Memory
(cid:2) How does information turn into memories?
Memory is a funny thing.You might be able to remember the name ofyour first-grade
teacher,but not the name ofsomeone you met five minutes ago.Mathematician John
Griffith estimated that in an average lifetime,a person stores roughly five hundred
208
Summary
THE NATURE OF MEMORY capacity oflong-term memory to store new information is extremely
Preview Question (cid:2) How does information turn into memories? laa rrgecee anncdy epfefrehctapsus gugnelsitms ittheadt. sThhoer ta-ptepremar aanndce l oonfga- pterrimm amcye mefofercyt manady
Human memory depends on a complex mental system.There are be distinct systems.
three basic memory processes.Encodingtransforms stimulus infor-
RETRIEVING MEMORIES
mation into some type ofmental representation.Material can be
encoded by acoustic (sound), visual (appearance), or semantic (cid:2) How do I retrieve stored memories?
(meaning) codes.Storagemaintains information in the memory sys-
Retrieval cueshelp people remember things that they would other-
tem over time.Retrievalis the process ofgaining access to previously
wise not be able to recall.The effectiveness ofretrieval cues follows
stored information.
the encoding specificity principle:Cues help retrieval only ifthey
Mostpsychologistsagreethatthereareatleastthreetypesof
iii
An Integrated Pedagogical System
190 Chapter 5 Learning
wREINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT In Review Chartssummarize information
e
viConcept Description Example or Comment in a convenient format and offer three
n re Preoinsiftoivrecement aIitn pcwrleeitaahss iatnhnget , tpphroees sifetrienvqetau steitonimncy uo lofu fas a op bro eesihxtpiavveeiro irere nibncyefo froclelor—wing Yhoaurd s taoy p“Georfoodrm jo ab !t”aasfkt.er someone works new fill-in-the -blank self-testing items to
i further aid student learning and review of
Negative Increasing the frequency of a behavior by following You learn to use the “mute”button on the TV
reinforcement it with the removal of an unpleasant stimulus or remote control to remove the sound of an
experience obnoxious commercial. the chapter material.
Escape conditioning Learning to make a response that removes an A little boy learns that crying will cut short
unpleasant stimulus the time that he must stay in his room.
Avoidance Learning to make a response that avoids You slow your car to the speed limit when
conditioning an unpleasant stimulus you spot a police car,thus avoiding being
stopped and reducing the fear of a fine;
very resistant to extinction.
Punishment Decreasing the frequency of a behavior by either You swat the dog after it steals food from
presenting an unpleasant stimulus (punishment 1) the table,or you take a favorite toy away
or removing a pleasant one (punishment 2, from a child who misbehaves.A number of
or penalty) cautions should be kept in mind before
using punishment. Instructional captionsfor all
?1.Taking an aspirin can relieve headache pain,so people learn to do so through the process of reinforcement. figures,tables,photographs,
2.The “walk”sign that tells people it is safe to cross the street is an example of a stimulus.
3.Response rates tend to be higher under schedules of reinforcement than under schedules. and cartoons reiterate core
concepts and help to interpret
more productive lives (e.g.,Alberto,Troutman,& Feagin,2002;Pear & Martin,2002).
Online Study Center These programs include establishing goal behaviors,choosing reinforcers and punishers, visual material.
Improve Your Grade and developing a systematic plan for applying them to achieve desired changes.Many
Tutorial:Reinforcement self-help books also incorporate principles ofpositive reinforcement,recommending
and Punishment self-reward following each small victory in people’s efforts to lose weight,stop smoking,
avoid procrastination,or reach other goals (e.g.,Grant & Kim,2002;Rachlin,2000).
When people cannot do anything to alter the consequences ofa behavior,discrim-
inative stimuli may hold the key to changing that behavior.For example,people often
find it easier to quit smoking if,at first,they stay away from bars and other places where
there are discriminative stimuli for smoking.Old cues can trigger old beChealvlsio or,f stoh et hNeeyrvous System 51
should avoid the old cues until new behavior can be established.Stimulus control can
also help alleviate insomnia.Insomniacs tend to use their beds for activities such as
watching television,writing letters,reading magazines,worrying,and so FonI.GSoUonR thEe 2.3
bsleedepro boemco bmeceo lmesse sa na dd ilsecsrs ilmikienlay.tiSvtei mstuimluus lcuosn ftororl stoh emraapnyye ancctoivuirtaiegse st hinats ormeClaonxmiaatcmiso utnon aiucnsadetion Between Neurons Cboedlly
their beds only for sleeping,and perhaps sex,making it more likely that Wthheeyn wstiilml uslleaetipon of a neuron reaches a
better when in bed (Edinger et al.,2001). certain level,the neuron fires,sending an
action potential shooting to the end of 1.An action potential
itsaxon and triggering the release of a shoots down the axon,
Associations between conditioned LINKAGEnpSeroucreostsra sntsimmuitltaetre sin ntoei gthheb osyrinnagp nsee.uTrhoinss away from the cell body. 1 Axon
play an srietmismppoounrlits aensat n radon lder eintfhl elexeiears r ncioonnrg s,ebbqueuttew nhecoeewns Networks of Learniaancngtdio mn apyo ctaeunstiea ltsh.em to fire their own 2.Are lneeausreodt rinatnos mthiett esry nisapse, Neurotransmitters
are they actually stored in the brain? No one yet knows for sure,but associative net- where the dendrites of
work models provide a good way ofthinking about the process.As suggested in the neighboring neurons
detect it. See enlarged
area. Synapse
2
3.If there is a receptor for
this neurotransmitter
Marginal Calloutsin the text onneu trhoet rdaennsdmriittteesr, athned 3
receptor bind, creating Receptors for
show students the online an electrochemical signal. Dendrite neurotransmitters
4
Tutorials available,which help
4.If that signal is strong
to illustrate key topics. ethneo udgehn,d irti tsepsr aenadds a dcroowsns Cell body
the cell body of the next
neuron, and begins
another action potential.
affair:The cell either fires its action potential at full strength or it does not fire at all.
Once a cell has fired,a very short recovery time called the refractory period follows,
during which the cell cannot fire again.Even so,neurons are able to fire as often as
1,000 times per second.The speed ofan action potential ranges from about 5 to about
260 miles per hour and depends on the thickness or diameter ofthe axon—larger ones
are faster—and on the presence ofmyelin (pronounced “MY-a-lin”).Myelinis a fatty
substance that wraps around some axons like a stocking and speeds up action poten-
tials.When a neuron fires,dendrites in the next cell detect the message and send the
signal to their cell body.
Synapses and Communication Between Neurons
How do the dendrites detect a signal from another neuron? As shown in Figure 2.3,it
works a little like the game oftag you played as a child.In this neural communication
tag game,however,one neuron “sends”a tag without actually touching the next neuron.
The marginal glossaryfound rctieemfllre ac caatnfotneroyrt cp fieelrrle ifio ardginagiAn, .dshuorirntg r ewchoivcehr ythe Wofhae nch aenm aicctailo tnh apto itse nsttoiarle rde atchheeres tihne l ietntldes “ obfagasn,” acxaolnle’sd bvreasnicclheses(,pirto sntiomuunlcaetdes “ tVhEe SrSe-leicakse-
neurotransmitter A chemical that els”).This chemical is called a neurotransmitterbecause it acts as a kind ofmessen-
throughout the text defines key transfers messages across synapses. ger between neurons.Neurotransmitters flow across a tiny gap,less than a millionth of
synapse The tiny gap between the an inch wide,which separates the axon ofone neuron and the dendrites ofanother.This
terms on the appropriate pages. aoxf oann ootfh oenr.e neuron and the dendrites irse atchhe tshyne adpetnicd griatpe, ooffttehne rneefxetr rceedll ,ton esuimroptlrya nassm thitet esrys ncahpemseic(aslelye fiFti,guorre b2in.4d), Wto hperno ttehineys
iv
Active Review
Chapter 7 Thought,Lang g
290
The Active Reviewat the end of
ACTIVE REVIEW Thought,Language,and Intelligence
each chapter acts as a built-in
study guide,helping students to …
Linkages
astgsdTomofhsnbupuoheetleoebsovhaserey ttcfii rgte nctlhrheLoieerehingei o bplrn,toskd r wieiui.akalecal AodclsObona p sguouhtg sfigfdpuihetsfba nyhe tnesr rseip.fitr oe snrlotyhadadt oecchtdt etmiiisiaeluesseeaaidr, clal, dgo stlcll asuc gi aeh h npfigjnhiasul rnaogssltetdaar syihp ueo npo mtttsctet hotfcutnhhore eeegetpbbs oernohr,h, lesifi rl i eagifeotnybotese t hhc g wtg ywepbllahored iyrdoiotnarsouo,rcshe yd okt ttwlguaw ao uioeukmiehpnthngrd .ci sto d elain typL l,cwtton n’oarhthhlsooraeohyhmo ee yni ttbaiksllcwehpp-tlihe. ne oiyymsgoouu CHALAPINNTTTGHEEUOLRALU IG7GGEHE,N TAC,NED WHlhoaeanwDrfe(p(gLfae ao(fdreauin Inf onaNcongeassbrtd.sec.rgK e .ltoiosIo eev iQAonn utv mminhc Gpdepps eesoplsu.E.cny .t 6aob2mS ts i29tle8rvrosho6ea)r1al?8arssiv)tnen)?i?eo’sn CCCHHHAAABPAPPIMTOPNBTTOSEELDEEYHOTRS CRREAIOGV MHV 2YCA18OOI IOTAA4LTIRNOLOIODGNNY S••PeraeAAtch CLCteioih cncneahk,npaaRetpgeectervtes iiSr oeD uinwsim asc,gaomnrnaandrme yAc,ipatlel puRdsle yttvroai etoewtsh ohefro Kcweh yma pTaetterermrsi.as,l in
and a Multiple-Choice Self-Testall help stu-
Summary dents master the chapter material successfully.
B(cid:2)TpossrMI(cid:2)yMtlsehfACpccNamitcscsPtmeiohrnottWaehaesES orehenGaenln,lnfiWeoulm mpitlNcPIeatchmrtvspyl eReaCdaiene reh dbao.rptTlppdaco tdietE iT satachtisortpesiA rir sroe, FstephtgafiDnscogepsi srhtulilnULoassp.aeareas eonI iiirneocrnT ryr pdtrbkEeofNeederotissetuhR ye io Aoisc ad Nfni pf cenecbeCanttnacutEt gayiyntailtychtcsh Toivszl,nh TtpitsP t tai,mzeventiotasio aS eo ohIyshogebR stt.ruun,armOsn;ioe e nehe oyRygoaEg nr sr O.nmpies ntthee fNian,hbMtruSnoeorpvtsseiuoceFeskt rf stsiSrmEo a sseeasSRDaHNa efieit fdteotnn nl sltw raoNshi.A1(I(dDx iao aTen emcftyencckPFgOr9ocenionvmcirfihecnh emfmersTHeood9e ofoi,pufbseaanpeion fet een9nn Fd Aan bsaregsoaldratEertlOtgo)s dyesct,a lsihhjs elhdd.FSueyesneP cTe r ec s tntt eTeoetstae eaa HtHiiU chpr yrai h enact h.ILl lntnrnetaoaituosHsoensbiwceeOs ,Sgesaf .r Gds n,isnlrto,f osfcMtAsmmset1tco ihrA h,?Oseko a,anrn iNh9emanHgifdinntesa1ea,tmrW myovcg9gleoisutrney n9 UsemcwseSeh5mamt r?iTi ofi rr o9ent,eatpnnmatd)-oiisoar:e i4Goeng,atA.csanttt noedfgcl mhate )’etssfn.TisSsr sa e f.hlnh, ,tTHsQa cFeaFilikhn(eDbs,CiipnccogcclrnaCrooegsenHeufeeyeoTihe auwtfon-dsr errbrireakriaoprBtn atvnn lmnd ( asEt eenwr kaarCrtreiFicoacttogcs i,ddmitgdoare anoeeiatoof( iahf aeoeniec po .pirHrl nTcnanalslne vtatErla n aet te ccrdehxgftacoe sP sovsgrbsleo iort. prree,e ntuofratoehaoo,ins:wgp sieoesn gnfanIiteecfprS scnTtactnunhtsiM oesmas-itserltutp,Uihtc r,tr pr t mahopteoerbearuT deaiea1irntlpt onavs u,nlfloeniroerp9siiSiec.olfeoscrgesd totz9ct eooaeteaNM aoene asee cek4scatnydmnrriYrlmdsssocrum )an,t emie ceio sear.ii fnorSt medaTlidtnouiflmebapuNaen: ntnicb p ehrntioHnapstrGoerTgnags eao,ee- tuesasepInltnie, hduii,Q- .stuslrBtssS-e2t .to.rog ec0euIrlrr0,Qltyaotxaw Cwh2Th(cid:2) CcBbu,mssdor)pootetnoaosebiupyHce.hifiiuamngreitaroeanvnula roeb loenrltkDgtvcidncIigdthu.ine.eotPpn ioesshoN. sis.oletr o u eeSl myg n.iobMleivvoa sf,tvapc,Ks- atra.I apnpbt repe pst tewsllici rdoEIiel htnuieencrmpenouodhNi odoxoo et ostsrwi( lesapu)ca p unesopregctGot,leghseepslelsgh louledsn evaucrtiemes otnes i im iert taidhmaie rif taecdhcS n nn arhneerpal rofteeseague dTferelchsrgnord tosw oo soc er eupisuRmsm eriutnmhte bsyoirmbrmhvlacpdrgestolAeaenTTmifiorarbayim ree ,ytmr etdtbeennanntet eosf tnmu hehrhTs ischafc.hea alatasmedofc dsaoneeo itaanftreTyt seoebelE nkr ris.touhmerdlgttWg , o cEsen l hohseoghsTmprru aurlGoe renaa,avfe mctr tmo oelieWrrhsu rmnm aaghbsseaelbanassropureaioIeololeesdecntio uteekltlu bkbeEar gndng.ayinc th le doOehiupennoiavhaho b inntu digmiSsm sWfcamtsoptlueybbtnnne e c edrmieo na n n oti mit ladhplgsngofcifiltm uldhigmtrogno,der tatio nseontredet heeet ptswv mlieag.utuaeyrssioa elrccnsR eie hiotn oy otke rWnr ootn.e aa iSitaeooihssbosiwigoeusalma nprhiTnstlnssctif.ef p ras nrluleaetkisp,ioedtiblty sasc/b iPeiaau etimdrs ulnerp. ece cnna.tn?rchnr l ililyershssceeericconasarakdEcaseec sp, aihr iaicectefeeCsdat u/sa trsftsrerttc ;iw btviqi ofrtac eeeifireocrcdghoeuaevieooaauih irilnshau xfoc nlnneeesrnrvnm ernlsm etewilonta vuplstis netiadceniry tvsettda s.c(iscrshuhc set io ebyilatcrybn l t sas aFiniattee a sta fl etyscao oobhattrhiiooanom aoetschs rindftsruoihosrrasauror t finotiiei e;iuiceeeetplmndpdaonorntgolsoof l ntncytloAajedaos sefgotsmshOn gnuae e tgrhogcs,t;C tr r ieoa nhl sttcehayncompeeocT oscihhowtEof,lvetogri .rfnli lu ohiusniaao pmeneea eonaianmaiUt sncittaar nnw rlnlagf ndc eh hcpst cioscnscltfco rnlhp 4akd hiuos ,aaovaosuloehnSfdseluius iriapn rn ironawntinstntor.hodfserpmmmosthiiuiseroeigtecrokeeleocoaitonrt’aedsano rlirssdeaeny.piunruCrnn - gyl-rttn- stat-at-,q. i- y-gr-h-losreCoiu iTtinvsuniie2ezc hn fytnzau9oeetoeltessxrl3ssuyee-rt;, • Lt2oesaS(cid:2)DrutsAtpttf oiaci2oececvonIo rcrg u9ieVrIn nereds.Dltee2nsoub,e EHnsrstinntmee. f rheRarefctdaDige is ocnevuftsS r heygehawsrecs reeneIytnaaapeadeTstti t lig ts i smlt oitwY eetesvbhtaun on hheoisaI tldacv r QhltrfIl tieei ae eorbrNs enycoiaoc see arttpdcottcns o’ ysohtlopirmIr i tper mnsaosNisesneot,eeDorn rssisnrntoTe.mt uuvaoatnnoTeE cntlifg d s ichnhtioiLttoi teon ehhneynaamsLstas,t stnseee s ttIe,sa aldd lyGltdnloisnii iiinptgfmigdfeduff-Eteneetef epdnheenowrN lrsoreelcntocia eennehgeiCrcanfc tg:eceat kt. cernEieiaingnecs nssnceaser eteit aosn lsn eas lsuvtiyc ppelnea mipotlsprrstiis wreotgceoea ses,lnaten hlsccipcirm hvdnag adrvaoet cnaeootetntoeicno i. chotl? tbsA tieoaneoicce cllfa,mhp pfcvhdlfceiro, aleorueedramw dndedtnrihi udheii dcilnneicantyt tt ga ’tc i scjs o trpo uuitodehnIoabrpr-Qiersf-s-.-testSfpcanurcemcsplatGgeeew ioaoohuectoeselgangaacecea .sspnriranitrfatecadIl udti blsienoaaflc,tne lia olil an lntadi ev-cwiinecnrn trmre taaieae,ths i eefcstn, bflaaosnaeirhuecadbti ft rspohvieonhni d ane lildefcedoiarodbrgtmotiae fctssgruie iaii oeoop nyolatrfrsIynmnr aenttQ ee aoe.ia hmCult.qcredgilw aCaevah, uPserirps liiclaaafioeidn,n tippeomnohpabmcerogossrpid dlet tepesp peusesl sanreaolnknnarcs peet tt m aiarea wt ir7wlerncewaatalosedeusgiextli,rct h,t s prdhahktebisoTawomarnas na el hetvns itrdilaohes sutcoeoiidreolwhtoleirewsueyienpm ny cisi c dgce fpn s mg,oa oaea hn ihegepntbb nlrisedotn h,eagmtyoa,noexpeiach nbuLu ntvltniralt aleagtodetsecitI il neg enisd eQeel7ousyoneeut—xsgye0., n ans fep-furs iPritco ksnecaemcniaeemptoriccnhggodronsa tepr ds. reopreeomecerod dmKs,resilorvinfieet ee faenvht aode ncerneeaotglesafn.atnh rddwlitaltlveiofpleid h nlty ciilIn iwee nrec,enrst,toodode t tlotli.rycpielnningenn lan,olliemeblsltttegtgmli ikseeerig deauseglgtna enlm bsenhsiieepnoaserucoetcntenuewcseaciu-ird.ecrd,c-l--tse,
nurture,and IQ. Learn by Doing
Steven Fraser (Ed.),The Bell Curve Wars(Basic Books,
1995).Essays critical ofThe Bell Curve.
Put It in Writing
RCfaaaaorvlnagtlacenlioiofihl rwayvcoiibotriahiniuilnlm eg iidngt ysl wethi e(fishelptlneu i. uoger2e rrio5ens i4iastcni)tfceci h ct (( h A(poKepI.f ).2G te2(5hpl55oe.y6) 2s)ks6 ea2yTr)y te/eIrnrmdmffffooaues xmrrni mmncsait ltaatii aohllt hlnrce reoe acea nlhet sficanoaerxdpnpde titadoenstrnf gi(?oe tp (hsCn.pse2 .h ( (52petp05e.c.x)4k22t)8 6.y80o))ur definiIlmmtaQinoee nngnteuttssaa atall g (gmsepae .(toin 2p(d.7spet24.l 6)s2t h96()0po.)s2e 5o2n) the pages shorrsceuwhhpleneerus emi rsoneiafs nsptl tio(acapgr t.(eiipc2vn. 5e(t2nh1p5).ee62ss)se5 s4 )in the afifasTrsencrosvudyemesl ntwst ihmy erbeosieent uinhy nrdtoa g oevud cwiy eoioedvnrnuise c ccr eoh uoosroul. wtwcnuhntr teae hdrr aeeaendycfit d ncei oirnotiui stohmtldinec a rsbok cetfihusnitalng ttb ut eyeyrl ooeltisuueg.se rDtfn eelcedeiesls . tcir nMreai pbncarhedke ie stldh deanree e stlki nisigin tnna todnienfsdll gia oga tfedy lnoduecuailftesr-st, gPbDptpiCuPieservroir sooeodestebnso b esr ssen s lasootieitahdnnhmlolluuaedg erntt-Lt i isaceooafaoaolaanctn lnreclcpv sn oerstir nnod miLoynoa g obepgtft burl iasaevyeAy enmea?c rcci catetnW sthiinstohov h i hmatinonatthtyhi pt eie go ssitoosyn eif tornoekie tAnnmuex wh .o tistch.asyWfh yrtobecet ihu eohn vcsfi aoocatispk htrctoo?rtni y lenenavFosrgl epo,wtp eorwa.ta rnhtanpr dIiditeanstihdrt ne i epi gvata dr ielmcoocos chnocbwoooaa lmnrespmldt m trpeaeaeinr;rlknsol te tcoj oht eeofhyuce rtoettn swh u,o oaei lnsl ntiaetshsee sett t r utottntthdhhhphayaeee?-et
bcoagbnbiltiinvges m (pa.p2 (7p0.)252) ghreaumrimstiacrs ((pp..226595)) nnoatrumras l( cpo.n27c6ep)ts (p.250) sSctrainpftosr (dp-.B2i5n2e)t (p.274) Step into Action
concepts (p.250) images (p.252) one-word stage (p.271) test (p.276)
confirmation bias (p.262) informal reasoning (p.255) performance scale (p.276) thinking (p.249) c Courses
MSccdeorxe12ievpln..eaeevuctrlb“daTabWJoceitgoa..tvbr. enehelreotghgiiv ihrntdrtfmckentaeiooydoethl enlnikved ore .dnte”(pti b amn hppn w tcalteHwrlt. ieguhasilsainya2kpktieletile iin;kh6e n t s ns(amsh.4g i c”kgp.-nhtndo)sohi .oB,Cigesnntps2edofiw ae cge( 6enfc nhpeid er6dl(mapd.ers ip)eue.td2 t o.ashfn;as6 ocg2e aadp4reit6r otsi )“ru c5 btfoeobhtfo)eahttefiti o rshce“oada th e Tdnfy ”m rhepS obhoiusaieisfabcnrnn edcirdtiak.rui.nhi p iIi plsnnh,oeQmhouutfs ewnftfeilyfa ooee -asuo shlasnlnrctt Trtlla ihibomtile iorcwgoaseweimrohntrlea.w e biod h ntc rsio((iiui eesscnnpophf .taple,..tdgncedr h22(o b -e.qpesa74pnusaT.lu69ercltw2onh)) eoew7 swtpacoa4tteit i’tnt),sshoih so Jinw hiasnbns rihsf.slrgur. aoT iwteedh onaitetlfidknp , stcoheck pprryeeo3rrlaoo.uisaptroobCnoeabcd onrt.g..in.isleylgiyii insnpTCCCcoht tapichytgfetnhlllo ao. iii e si( (e(nnnnuscnDtappp rtttskslr.s.. f agu eeeer(was222to?prrutpsne755iisir .rsglnl6d4 1aiellt2fty ) )g )grsoh5m.bha earm1teitni hase) nat y,idea ugs n.lttnnnnoi oHvootncethelxtrig en sieat w n e tmuAgihgsimansn ena omcu yhestvl wr.eheeebi u esreehhta rr iageil pcslsK uvva .tli meapaitsebWcril yryeli geboiid wehn.otaabniyagiitltanl t y(lsb wtt gp cphhi(b i.alpretenii2lotoa. enie6ssb2 e naib(67lsnCpme).ad8gm.ls )ie 2eona 7fwgtth6’ astici)h smlhcl e sehet tch torkoeaiisxecft eretss.gt yraaltl- fBSCFM2AGNeoMGoBa0RTEPaCPrEpyrLose0eeinarPnsror txrofla1shcoyei Llo tsilgptnnh;gAs:Ylelcay seb ioltevn idgheDvnca wA fn lMrtasGuhiienos1ei it aagton memaoFee3Sleuia iynrivdrgrnsfom;pn.nmasdc o eeise o aT;snelgP. Mrna t ep tocsP uhLdghrGy.tt ;eBlo srea eiiw;eev AOt seyPio albO vticRt nMicNssblnseilftPseshudeyceehbl)g eesMiaosmcytorMy s.gysihleWpst lcso ciso .mFoaGmmcshtesogeAiinloyoeesao lyee. vcnlannltTgnnvhoeAoniitayittsmuerg dnr .;t (r; syoet( gs;aC.iM.Ka fo,filHKll Dm-scaacec1ioirinbnionlaev9e a;i mdtleca :lor i TiratsmiytfTmsin lhy viloth.ateeteiuhyefet sdnenOy l dil oWc,iinHCt cagfihJtnialeauaeildetnnetvlmcrioelde koctiwlSe geialnBleiie.mnlsg.;inet g eeaPaFcenrrkeian;.c. e.cceCrte..oh.rasr)ly; dHPJTIParo2hiaGnBieNWetMnhenrwo0miu?UvtGveiltdeofea 0dsiiseaiearHnoleprd tks6iiRrdlrrnoonipvsdiri e )deoo gvi yTuyiaBiog.ndsGSwkn edte ne km,pGPefcn uArsouti asdpr,me.srglcCr(a frlanoi e oeSoleS(WertlfpasessmscDrly idhwo eintnmkredS titfanernoouinlPhto m,ie iepepecWatbunrltczraEcystarellah eeaitb,e i,, kxsetls rpssrebe h l AiIpi1p,tshHeeB vloK,inee,e9evlglxPdoi runaiTtrne 9d2aap2tee artigussoyhl8i0tenl tt1yei.uunlhrcweP nn)0e,ristiieesurga. teot0senc2?tW setnltlsH e)MC0o tl iinss(t.i hdcta.0,hifPgiecttissrRees.chh4enee Erdegt caT Tene)iaotr corRiGnlu .sotshesoc ormFe ueciJrsPeodnyautoauefeytbsdh trdro rwpntd.oo aejsoecom,(Me gf:sf m hBf nrmacamejiTCa euatnae nuneo tfaUhesskrdddttdshf,nkinoeeoso.:gnc e w i ,StA Hr mMnUiRrt:toBatv hd BhgsHeocnseteouse .me Chiwrn:dtoeoloS soat tWt sawmrkii RniC iatpireosduy emaekhl,osGfe esns,raylP1 aeeltodeb aae9sra tovelcn(n efl9hreedtfrOscdd 9aoeins sSvhwt)xir,etas.fosnordryd
b.natural;image;concept
c.natural;prototype;mental model
d.visual;mental model;script
v
2
Learn by Doing
Four features throughout the text
underscore a commitment to active
learningand applying psychology.
The Trait Approach 427
FIGURE 11.2
Two Personality Profiles Industry
2blyedaorinngTarlaitiyt itnh etoerrmy ds eosfc trhibee sst preenrsgothn-
of particular dimensions,or
Figure and Photo Captions tinranietrs-.cHiteyr eso acriea lt wraoitr kperor,fialneds fJoamr Reos,dan esya,leasn Generosity
clerk.Compared with James,Rodney is
about equally industrious;more generous;
Dozens of new figure and photo captions asinvde .leJussst n feorrv fouuns,,mexatrrka vtehrist efidg,uarned t oag igndrei-s- Nervousness
cate how strong you think you are on each
of the listed traits.Trait theorists suggest
identified with a “Learn by Doing”symbol tchaauts et,htish esyh osualyd, vbiert euaasllyy feovre yroyoun teo ddiosp blaey-s Extraversion
a certain amount of almost any personal-
reinforce concepts by suggesting ways ity characteristic.
Aggression
in which students can demonstrate the
Low Moderate High
concepts for themselves. Strength of trait
Rodney James
Source:Costa & McCrae (1992).
that organize and control behavior in many different situations.Central traits are
roughly equivalent to the descriptive terms used in letters ofrecommendation (reliable
or distractible,for example) that are meant to tell what can be expected from a person
most ofthe time (Schultz & Schultz,2005).Allport also believed that people possess
secondary traits—those that are more specific to certain situations and control far less
behavior.“Dislikes crowds”is an example ofa secondary trait.
(cid:2)
Applying Psychology Photos applying SELECTING A JURY
psychologySome psychologists
employ trait theories of
personality in advising prosecution or
These photos highlight the diversity of djuerfoerns saer ea tmtoorsnte lyikse alyb otou tb we hsyicmh ppaottheenttiical
to their side of a court case.
applied psychology.
p p y p p y
3.People differ in how much ofa particular personality trait they possess;no two
people are exactly alike on all traits.The result is an endless variety ofunique
personalities.
In short,psychologists who take the traitapproachsee personality as a combina-
Learn by Doing Icon tion ofstable internal characteristics that people display consistently over time and
across situations (Pervin et al.,2005).Trait theorists seek to measure the relative
strength ofthe many personality characteristics that they believe are present in every-
one (see Figure 11.2).
A symbol appears next to the text where Early Trait Theories
Today’s trait theories ofpersonality are largely based on the work ofGordon Allport and
active learning opportunities occur. Raymond Cattell.(The contributions ofanother early trait theorist,Hans Eysenck,are
discussed later.) Allport spent thirty years searching for the traits that combine to form
personality.When he looked at the nearly 18,000 dictionary terms that can be used to
describe human behavior (Allport & Odbert,1936),he noticed that there are clusters of
terms referring refer to the same thing.For example,hostile,nasty,and meanall convey
sttoiroanniat olaitfpy ps ttrahobaaltce vh ciehwaArs a pictet earsrspi stethciects icv toehm aotbn pi npeaeo-rp-le 2obnlyedlyao rainn fgew aaat trrisevai meliit,k ialelaan bmrd em oljsso.etta A pndlelioopnwpogn.lret T, aobyll oe blutihee twvet eeepdrre e urt sahnobadnltee ar tlthsiotteay cn satderpt at tiuohtsrfi estl haycboaluteu slrdst e ertreshiclnaargttii b,vdetee h’tssih cnpriksei b rposeoef ranas ao plcnialto.rytsI iuefc suyriloenalugr-
display over time and across situations. person reflects that person’s central traits—those that are usually obvious to others and
Put It in Writing and Personal
Learning Activity 2
Learn by Doing
As part of the Active Review section, Put It in Writing Personal Learning Activity
What is stress like for you? To help you understand the role ofstress To get an idea ofthe differences in people’s stress-coping methods,cre-
in your life,write a page or two describing a stressful incident that ate a one-paragraph story about a stressful situation (such as losing a
Put It in Writinginvites readers to write you had to face in the recent past.Identify what the stressors were, job,having one’s home destroyed by fire,working for an obnoxious boss,
and classify each ofthem as physical or psychological.List your phys- or being overburdened by schoolwork).Now show this description to
ical,emotional,cognitive,and behavioral responses to these stressors, ten people and ask each ofthem to tell you how they would cope with
about a specific chapter topic,and and how long the responses lasted.Include a briefsummary ofhow the situation ifit happened to them.Classify each oftheir coping meth-
you coped with these stressors and how successful your coping efforts ods as problem focused or emotion focused.Did you notice any rela-
were.Some research suggests that writing about stressful experiences tionships between the kind ofcoping responses these people chose and
Personal Learning Activityprovides cparnoj ehcetl ph apveeo panley tsou cdhe abl ewnietfiht st hfoosre yeoxup?e rFioenr cmeso.rDe idab tohuist wwrriittiinngg tehnecier wpeitrhs osntrael ssc?h aIfrascot,erwishtyic sd,os uycohu aths iangke ,thgoesned reer,laettiohnnsichiitpy,s oarp peexapreerdi-?
and health,visit http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/faculty/ For additional projects,see the Personal Learning Activities in the corre-
another opportunity to do psychology— pennebaker/Home2000/WritingandHealth.html sponding chapter ofthe study guide that accompanies this text.
not just read about it.
vi
Thinking Critically
A dedicated section in
each chapter helps
improve this vital skill.
Some researchers and clinicians worry THINKING CRITICALLY
Structured around five questions,
that problems with the reliability and
these sections encourage readers to validity ofthe diagnostic system are due Is Psychological
partly to bias in its construction and use.They Diagnosis Biased?
analyze material before drawing
point out,for example,that if the criteria for
conclusions: diagnosing a certain disorder were based on
research that focused on only one gender,one ethnic group,or one age group,those cri-
• What am I being asked to believe teria might not apply to other groups.Moreover,diagnosticians,like other people,hold
expectations and make assumptions about males versus females and about individuals
or accept?
from differing cultures or ethnic groups.These cognitive biases could color their judg-
• Is there evidence available to ments and might lead them to apply diagnostic criteria in ways that are slightly but sig-
nificantly different from one case to the next (Garb,1997;Hartung & Widiger,1998).
support the claim?
• ■ What am I being asked to believe or accept?
Can that evidence be interpreted
Here,we focus on ethnicity as a possible source ofbias in diagnosing psychopathology.
another way?
It is ofspecial interest because there is evidence that,like social class and gender,eth-
•
What evidence would help to nicity is an important sociocultural factor in the development ofmental disorder.The
assertion to be considered is that clinicians in the United States base their diagnoses
evaluate the alternatives?
partly on a client’s ethnic background and,more specifically,that there is bias in diag-
• What conclusions are most nosing African Americans.
reasonable? ■ What evidence is available to support the claim?
Several facts suggest the possibility ofethnic bias in psychological diagnosis.For exam-
ple,African Americans receive the diagnosis ofschizophrenia more frequently than Euro-
pean Americans do (Manderscheid & Barrett,1987;Minsky et al.,2003;Pavkov,Lewis,
& Lyons, 1989). Further, relative to their presence in the general population,African
Americans are overrepresented in public mental hospitals,where the most serious forms
of disorder are seen,and they are underrepresented in private hospitals and outpatient
New!
Active Learningand THINKING CRITICALLY
Critical Thinkingbooklets
provide a wealth of thought- What Can fMRI Tell Us about Behavior and Mental Processes 58
provoking,hands-on activities Does Acupuncture Relieve Pain 109
that help students to apply
Can Subliminal Messages Change Your Behavior 139
key concepts to their own
Does Watching Violence on Television Make People More
experiences and develop
Violent 197
important critical thinking
Can Traumatic Memories Be Repressed, Then Recovered 230
skills.Both of these password-
Are Intelligence Tests Unfairly Biased Against Certain Groups 283
protected booklets may be
What Shapes Sexual Orientation 313
accessed from the Online
Study Centervia a passkey Does Day Care Harm the Emotional Development of Infants 364
packaged upon request with Does Hostility Increase the Risk of Heart Disease 409
the text.Instructor versions Are Personality Traits Inherited 430
of these booklets are available
Is Psychological Diagnosis Biased 464
on the Online Teaching Center.
Are All Forms of Therapy Equally Effective 518
Please consult your sales
Does Pornography Cause Aggression 572
representative for further
details.
vii
Focus on Research
Highlighting a particular study,these sections
emphasize the value of research and the creativity
with which it is often conducted.
These sections are organized
around five questions: Why is self-esteem so important to so FOCUS ON RESEARCH
• many people? An intriguing answer
What was the researcher’s to this question comes from the Self-Esteem and the
question? terror management theory proposed by Jeff Ultimate Terror
Greenberg, Tom Pyszczynski, and Sheldon
•
How did the researcher answer Solomon.This theory is based on the notion
the question? that humans are the only creatures capable ofthinking about the future and realizing that
we will all eventually die.Terror management theory suggests that humans cope with anx-
•
What did the researcher find? iety,including the terror that thoughts about death might bring,by developing a variety
• ofself-protective psychological strategies.One ofthese is the effort to establish and main-
What do the results mean?
tain high self-esteem (Greenberg,Pyszczynski,& Solomon,2003;Pyszczynski et al.,2004).
•
What do we still need to know?
■ What was the researchers’ question?
In one series ofexperiments,Greenberg and his colleagues (1992) asked whether high
self-esteem would, in fact, serve as a buffer against anxiety—specifically, the anxiety
brought on by thoughts about death and pain.
■ How did the researchers answer the question?
About 150 students at several North American universities participated in one ofthree
studies,each ofwhich followed a similar format.The first step was to temporarily alter
the participants’self-esteem.To do so,the researchers gave the students feedback about
a personality or intelligence test they had taken earlier in the semester.Half the par-
ticipants received positive feedback designed to increase their self-esteem. The other
halfreceived feedback that was neutral—it was neither flattering nor depressing.(Mea-
surement of the students’self-esteem showed that the positive feedback actually did
create higher self-esteem than the neutral feedback.) In the next phase ofeach experi-
ment,the researchers used either a film about death or the (false) threat ofa mild elec-
tric shock to provoke some anxiety in half the participants in the positive-feedback
FOCUS ON RESEARCH
group and halfthe participants in the neutral-feedback group.The amount ofanxiety
created was measured by the participants’self-reports or by monitoring galvanic skin
resistance (GSR),a measure of perspiration in their skin that reflects anxiety-related
Studying EMDR 32
physiological arousal (Dawson,Schell,& Filion,2000).
The Case of the Disembodied Woman 67
Attention and the Brain 128
Subliminal Messages in Rock Music 141
The “I Can’t Do It” Attitude 192
I Could Swear I Heard It! 223
Problem-Solving Strategies in the Real World 258
Tell Me About Your Sex Life 309
What Do Infants Know About Physics 352
Personality and Health 405
Personality Development over Time 441
Exploring Links Between Child Abuse and Antisocial Personality
Disorder 486
Which Therapies Work Best for Which Problems 519
Self-Esteem and the Ultimate Terror 541
viii
Linkages
The Linkagesfeature reflects the relationships
among the subfields of psychology.
ACTIVE REVIEW
Sensation and Perception
Linkages Linkages Diagram
As noted in the introductory LINKAGES In the Active Review section at the
chapter, all of psychology’s sub- CHAPTER 9
fields are related to one another.
end of each chapter,a Linkages
Our discussion of the development of per- How do infants HUMAN
ception illustrates just one way in which perceive the world? DEVELOPMENT
the topic of this chapter, sensation and (ans. on p. 125) diagrampresents three ques-
perception, is linked to the subfield of
developmental psychology, which is de- CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 12 tions to illustrate how material in
scribed in the chapter on human develop-
mtmweoonr eto. t tThieheser t sLhuirnbokfiuaegglhdeoss,u dati nathdge rta hbmeor osehk ao. rLweos om tkiaeinns gyto SEPNESRACTEIOPTNIO ANND rDehaoal( aplslneuesonc. pisonlonear tpypi.o ee4nrv8cse1e na)ivstse? PSYDCISHOORLDOEGRICSAL tchhea pcthearps tienr tihs ere blaotoekd. to other
for linkages among subfields will help you
see how they all fit together and help you
CHAPTER 14
better appreciate the big picture that is
psychology Do we sometimes
Marginal Callouts
The Linkages diagram directs HLoINw KdoA iGnfEanSts perceive the We have seen that perception is influ- LINKAGES
world? (a link to Human enced by the knowledge and expe-
students to the pages that carry Development) rience we gain over time,but what Perception and Human
perceptual abilities do we start with? To learn Development
further discussion of each about infants’perception,psychologists have
studied two inborn patterns called habituation
question,where a marginal and dishabituation.Infants stop looking when they repeatedly see stimuli that they per-
ceive to be the same.This is habituation.Ifthey see a stimulus that is perceived to be
calloutappears. new and different,they resume looking.This is dishabituation.Using the habituation/
dishabituation technique,researchers have found that newborns can perceive differ-
ences in stimuli showing various amounts ofblack-and-white contrast but that they
cannot yet distinguish differences between colors (Burr,Morrone,& Fiorentini,1996).
Other studies using the same methods have shown that newborns can perceive differ-
ences in the angles oflines (Slater et al.,1991).Taken together,these studies suggest
that we are born with the basic components offeature detection.
A l b ithth bilit t bi f t i t ti f h l
LINKAGES
Linkages Sections
Psychological Research and Behavioral Genetics 37 One of the questions in the
Human Development and the Changing Brain 73 Linkages diagram is discussed at
length in the chapter’s special
Perception and Human Development 125
section titled Linkages.
Meditation, Health, and Stress 154
Networks of Learning 190
Memory and Perception in the Courtroom 225
Group Processes in Problem Solving and Decision Making 268
Conflicting Motives and Stress 321
Development and Memory 358
Stress and Psychological Disorders 398
Personality, Culture, and Human Development 440
Anxiety Disorders and Learning 469
Biology, Behavior, and the Treatment of Psychological
Disorders 531
Biological and Social Psychology 582
ix