Essential Nuclear Medicine Physics, Second Edition

213 Pages·2006·20.318 MB·English

Essential
Nuclear Medicine Physics
To my two nuclear families: Ronald, Arianna, To Rhoda M. Powsner, M.D., J.D. for her love,
and Danny, and Edward, Rhoda, Seth, Ethan, support,andhercontinuinghelp.
andDavid,fortheirloveandsupport. ERP
RAP
SECOND EDITION
Essential
Nuclear Medicine
Physics
Rachel A. Powsner
M.D.
AssociateProfessorofRadiology
BostonUniversitySchoolofMedicine
Director,DivisionofNuclearMedicine
DepartmentofRadiology
BostonVeteransAdministrationHealthcareSystem
Boston,Massachusetts
Edward R. Powsner
M.D.
FormerChief,NuclearMedicineService,VeteransAdministrationHospital
AllenPark,Michigan
FormerProfessorandAssociateChairman,DepartmentofPathology
MichiganStateUniversity
EastLansing,Michigan
FormerChair,JointReviewCommitteeforEducationalNuclearMedicineTechnology
FormerMember,AmericanBoardofNuclearMedicine
©2006RachelA.PowsnerandEdwardR.Powsner
PublishedbyBlackwellPublishingLtd
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Firsteditionpublished1998
Secondeditionpublished2006
1 2006
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Powsner,RachelA.
Essentialnuclearmedicinephysics/RachelA.Powsner,EdwardR.Powsner.–2nded.
p.;cm.
Rev.ed.of:Essentialsofnuclearmedicinephysics.1998.
Includesindex.
ISBN-13:978-1-4051-0484-5(alk.paper)
ISBN-10:1-4051-0484-8(alk.paper)
1.Nuclearmedicine.2.Medicalphysics.I.Powsner,EdwardR.,1926-.II.Powsner,
RachelA.,Essentialsofnuclearmedicinephysics.III.Title.
[DNLM:1.NuclearMedicine.2.Accidents,Radiation–prevention&control.3.Nuclear
Physics.4.RadiationEffects.5.Radiation.
WN440P889e2006]
R895.P692006
616.07’575–dc22
2005035905
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Contents
Preface,vi
Acknowledgments,vii
Contributingauthor,viii
1 BasicNuclearMedicinePhysics,1
2 InteractionofRadiationwithMatter,20
3 FormationofRadionuclides,29
4 NonscintillationDetectors,37
5 NonimagingScintillationDetectors,52
6 ImagingInstrumentation,65
7 Single-PhotonEmissionComputedTomography(SPECT),85
8 PositronEmissionTomography(PET),114
9 CombinedPET/CTImaging,128
10 QualityControl,136
11 RadiationBiology,151
12 RadiationDosimetry,163
13 RadiationSafety,167
14 ManagementofNuclearEventCasualties,174
R.A.Powsner,E.R.Powsner,andK.Donohoe
RecommendingReading,188
AppendixA. CommonNuclides,190
AppendixB. MajorDosimetryforCommonPharmaceuticals,191
AppendixC. SampleCalculationsoftheSValue,194
AppendixD. GuidetoNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)
Publications,197
Answers,199
Index,203
v
Preface
After years of postgraduate training, many radiationbiology,radiationsafety,andradiation
physicians have forgotten some (or most) of accidents.
their undergraduate and high school physics Numerous illustrations are included. They
and may find submersion into nuclear physics are highly schematic and are designed to illus-
somewhat daunting. This book begins with trate concepts rather than represent scale mod-
a very basic introduction to nuclear physics els of their subjects. This text is intended for
and the interactions of radiation and matter. radiologyresidents, cardiologyfellows, nuclear
It then proceeds with discussions of nuclear medicine fellows, nuclear medicine technology
medicine instrumentation used for production students, and others interested in an introduc-
of nuclides, measurement of doses, surveying tiontoconceptsinnuclearmedicinephysicsand
radioactivity, and imaging (including SPECT, instrumentation.
PET, and PET-CT). The final chapters cover
RAP
vi
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the following Maura Dineen-Burton, C.N.M.T., Dipa Patel,
expertsfortheirvaluablecritiquesofportionsof M.D.,AlfonseTaghian,M.D.,HernanJara,Ph.D.,
this text: Stephen Moore, Ph.D. on the topic of Susan Gussenhoven, Ph.D., John Shaw, M.S.,
SPECTprocessingincludingiterativereconstruc- MichaelSquillante,Ph.D.,KevinBuckley,C.H.P.,
tion, FredFahey, D.Sc. onPETinstrumentation, JayneCaruso,VictorLee,M.D.,TobyWroblicka,
and Robert Zimmerman, M.S.E.E. on gamma M.D., Dan Winder, M.D., Dennis Atkinson,
cameraqualitycontrolandthephysicsofcrystal M.D., and Inna Gazit, M.D.. Thanks to Peter
scintillators. In addition, Dr Frank Masse gen- Shomphe,A.R.R.T.,C.N.M.T.,BobDann,Ph.D.,
erously reviewed the material on radiation andLaraPatriquin,M.D.forwadingthroughthe
accidentsandMarkWalsh, C.H.P.critiquedthe manuscript in its entirety. We greatly appreci-
radiation safety text. Many thanks to Margaret ate the patience shown at that time by Robert
Nordby for her patient review of the proofs. Zimmerman, M.S.E.E., Kevin Buckley, C.H.P.,
TheauthorsaregratefultoRhondaM.Powsner, JohnWidman, Ph.D., C.H.P., PeterWaer, Ph.D.,
M.D.forherassistanceinreviewingthetextand StephenMoore, Ph.D., BillWorstell, Ph.D., and
proofs. HernanJara,Ph.D.whileansweringournumer-
Sincethesecondeditionincorporatesthetext ousquestions. ThankstoDeliaEdwards, Milda
from the first edition the authors would like to Pitter,andPaulGuidone,M.D.fortakingtimeto
thank the following individuals for their help poseasmodels.
in reviewing portions of the first edition dur- RAP
ing it’s preparation: David Rockwell, M.D., ERP
vii
Contributing author
KevinDonohoe,M.D.
StaffPhysicianinNuclearMedicine
BethIsraelDeaconessMedicalCenter
AssistantProfessorofRadiology
HarvardMedicalSchool
viii
Essential Nuclear Medicine Physics, Second Edition
Rachel A. Powsner, Edward R. Powsner
Copyright © 2006 Rachel A. Powsner and Edward R. Powsner
CHAPTER 1
1
Basic nuclear medicine physics
theelectronsfromtheatomsofthematterinthe
Properties and Structure of Matter
rod to the cloth. In a similar fashion, electrons
Matter has several fundamental properties. For canbetransferredtotheshoesofapersonwalk-
our purposes the most important are mass and ingacrossacarpet. Thecarpetwillthenhavea
charge(electric).Werecognizemassbytheforce net positive charge and the shoes (and wearer)
gravity exerts on a material object (commonly anetnegativecharge(Fig.1-1).Withthesebasic
referredtoasitsweight)andbytheobject’siner- propertiesinmind,wecanlookatmatterinmore
tia,whichisthe“resistance”weencounterwhen detail.
weattempttochangethepositionormotionofa Matteriscomposedofmolecules.Inanychem-
materialobject. icallypurematerial,themoleculesarethesmall-
Similarly, we can, at least at times, recognize est units that retain the characteristics of the
charge by the direct effect it can have on us materialitself.Forexample,ifablockofsaltwere
or that we can observe it to have on inanimate to be broken into successively smaller pieces,
objects.Forexample,wemayfeelthepresenceof
astronglychargedobjectwhenitcausesourhair
tomoveoreventostandonend.Moreoftenthan
not, however, we are insensitive to charge. But
whethergrosslydetectableornot,itseffectsmust
be considered here because of the role charge
playsinthestructureofmatter.
Chargeisgenerallythoughttohavebeenrec-
ognizedfirstbytheancientGreeks.Theynoticed
thatsomekindsofmatter,anamberrodforexam-
ple, can be given an electric charge by rubbing
it with a piece of cloth. Their experiments con-
vincedthemthattherearetwokindsofcharge:
opposite charges, which attract each other, and
like charges, which repel. One kind of charge
cametobecalledpositive,theothernegative.We
nowknowthatthenegativechargeisassociated
withelectrons.Therubbingtransferredsomeof Figure1-1 Electrostaticcharge.
1
2 CHAPTER 1
thesmallestfragmentwiththepropertiesofsalt areheldbytheelectricalforcebetweenthemand
wouldbeasinglesaltmolecule(Fig.1-2). With thepositivenucleus.Thenucleusoftheatomis
further fragmentation the molecule would no heldtogetherbyanothertypeofforce—nuclear
longerbesalt.Molecules,inturn,arecomposed force—whichisinvolvedinthereleaseofatomic
of atoms. Most molecules consist of more than energy.Nuclearforcesareofgreatermagnitudes
one kind of atom—salt, for example, is made thanelectricalforces.
upofatomsofchlorineandsodium.Theatoms
themselvesarecomposedofsmallerparticles,the
Elements
subatomicparticles,whicharediscussedlater.
Themoleculeisheldtogetherbythechemical Therearemorethan100speciesofatoms.These
bondsamongitsatoms.Thesebondsareformed speciesarereferredtoaselements. Mostofthe
bytheforceofelectricalattractionbetweenoppo- knownelements—forexample,mercury,helium,
sitely charged parts of the molecule. This force gold,hydrogen,andoxygen—occurnaturallyon
is often referred to as the Coulomb force after earth;othersarenotusuallyfoundinnaturebut
CharlesA.deCoulomb,thephysicistwhochar- are made by humans—for example, europium
acterizedit.Thisistheforceinvolvedinchemical andamericium.Areasonableexplanationforthe
reactionssuchasthecombiningofhydrogenand absenceofsomeelementsfromnatureisthatif
oxygentoformwater.Theelectronsoftheatom and when they were formed they proved too
unstable to survive in detectable amounts into
thepresent.
All the elements have been assigned sym-
bolsorabbreviatedchemicalnames: gold—Au,
mercury—Hg, helium—He. Some symbols are
obviousabbreviationsoftheEnglishname;oth-
ersarederivedfromtheoriginalLatinnameof
theelement,forexample,Auisfromaurum,the
Latinwordforgold.
All of the known elements, both natural and
thosemadebyhumans,areorganizedintheperi-
Figure1-2 TheNaClmoleculeisthesmallestunitof
saltthatretainsthecharacteristicsofsalt. odictable.InFigure1-3,theelementsthathavea
Figure1-3 Periodictable.