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MATHEMATICS FOR COMPUTER GRAPHICS John Vince Mathematics for Computer Graphics SecondEdition With175Illustrations JohnVince,MTech,PhD,DSc,FBCS,CEng MediaSchool, UniversityofBournemouth,TalbotCampus,FernBarrow,PooleBH125BB,UK LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2005928172 ISBN-10:1-84628-034-6 ISBN-13:978-1-84628-034-4 ISBN1-85233-380-41stedition Printedonacid-freepaper. (cid:1)c Springer-VerlagLondonLimited2006 Apartfromanyfairdealingforthepurposesofresearchorprivatestudy,orcriticismorreview,asper- mittedundertheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988,thispublicationmayonlybereproduced, storedortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withthepriorpermissioninwritingofthepublish- ers,orinthecaseofreprographicreproductioninaccordancewiththetermsoflicencesissuedbythe CopyrightLicensingAgency.Enquiriesconcerningreproductionoutsidethosetermsshouldbesentto thepublishers. Theuseofregisterednames,trademarks,etc.inthispublicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceof aspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevantlawsandregulationsandtherefore freeforgeneraluse. Thepublishermakesnorepresentation,expressorimplied,withregardtotheaccuracyoftheinfor- mationcontainedinthisbookandcannotacceptanylegalrepsonsibilityorliabilityforanyerrorsor omissionsthatmaybemade. PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica. (SPI/MVY) 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 SpringerScience+BusinessMedia springeronline.com Dedication I dedicate this book to my wife Annie, who has had to tolerate a year of me reading math books in bed, on planes, boats, trains, in hotels, in the garden, in the bath, on holiday, and probably in my sleep! Contents Preface xiii 1 Mathematics 1 1.1 Is Mathematics Difficult? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.2 Who should Read this Book?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3 Aims and Objectives of this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.4 Assumptions Made in this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.5 How to Use the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 Numbers 5 2.1 Natural Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.2 Prime Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.3 Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.4 Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.5 Irrational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.6 Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.7 The Number Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.8 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3 Algebra 11 3.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3.2 Algebraic Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.2.1 Associative Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.2.2 Commutative Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3.2.3 Distributive Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3.3 Solving the Roots of a Quadratic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . 14 viii MathematicsforComputerGraphics 3.4 Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.4.1 Laws of Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.4.2 Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.5 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.6 Further Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 4 Trigonometry 17 4.1 The Trigonometric Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 4.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 4.3 Inverse Trigonometric Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 4.4 Trigonometric Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 4.5 The Sine Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 4.6 The Cosine Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 4.7 Compound Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 4.8 Perimeter Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 4.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 5 Cartesian Coordinates 23 5.1 The Cartesian xy-plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 5.1.1 Function Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 5.1.2 Geometric Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 5.1.3 Polygonal Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 5.1.4 Areas of Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 5.1.5 Theorem of Pythagoras in 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 5.2 3D Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 5.2.1 Theorem of Pythagoras in 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 5.2.2 3D Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 5.2.3 Euler’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 5.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 6 Vectors 31 6.1 2D Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 6.1.1 Vector Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 6.1.2 Graphical Representation of Vectors. . . . . . . . . . . 32 6.1.3 Magnitude of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 6.2 3D Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 6.2.1 Vector Manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 6.2.2 Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 6.2.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 6.2.4 Position Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 6.2.5 Unit Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 6.2.6 Cartesian Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 6.2.7 Vector Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 6.2.8 Scalar Product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Contents ix 6.2.9 Example of the Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 6.2.10 The Dot Product in Lighting Calculations . . . . . . . 42 6.2.11 The Dot Product in Back-Face Detection . . . . . . . 43 6.2.12 The Vector Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 6.2.13 The Right-Hand Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 6.3 Deriving a Unit Normal Vector for a Triangle . . . . . . . . . 47 6.4 Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 6.4.1 Calculating 2D Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 6.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 7 Transformation 51 7.1 2D Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 7.1.1 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 7.1.2 Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 7.1.3 Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 7.2 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 7.2.1 Systems of Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 7.2.2 The Determinant of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 7.3 Homogeneous Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 7.3.1 2D Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 7.3.2 2D Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 7.3.3 2D Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 7.3.4 2D Shearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 7.3.5 2D Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 7.3.6 2D Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 7.3.7 2D Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 7.3.8 2D Rotation about an Arbitrary Point . . . . . . . . . 65 7.4 3D Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 7.4.1 3D Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 7.4.2 3D Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 7.4.3 3D Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 7.4.4 Gimbal Lock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 7.4.5 Rotating about an Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 7.4.6 3D Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 7.5 Change of Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 7.5.1 2D Change of Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 7.6 Direction Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 7.6.1 Positioning the Virtual Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 7.6.2 Direction Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 7.6.3 Euler Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 7.7 Rotating a Point about an Arbitrary Axis . . . . . . . . . . . 83 7.7.1 Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 7.7.2 Adding and Subtracting Quaternions . . . . . . . . . 91 7.7.3 Multiplying Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 7.7.4 The Inverse Quaternion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 x MathematicsforComputerGraphics 7.7.5 Rotating Points about an Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 7.7.6 Roll, Pitch and Yaw Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . 95 7.7.7 Quaternions in Matrix Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 7.7.8 Frames of Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 7.8 Transforming Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 7.9 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 7.10 Perspective Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 7.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 8 Interpolation 107 8.1 Linear Interpolant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 8.2 Non-Linear Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 8.2.1 Trigonometric Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 8.2.2 Cubic Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 8.3 Interpolating Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 8.4 Interpolating Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 8.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 9 Curves and Patches 123 9.1 The Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 9.2 The Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 9.3 B´ezier Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 9.3.1 Bernstein Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 9.3.2 Quadratic B´ezier Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 9.3.3 Cubic Bernstein Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 9.4 A recursive B´ezier Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 9.5 B´ezier Curves Using Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 9.5.1 Linear Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 9.6 B-Splines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 9.6.1 Uniform B-Splines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 9.6.2 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 9.6.3 Non-Uniform B-Splines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 9.6.4 Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines . . . . . . . . . . . 141 9.7 Surface Patches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 9.7.1 Planar Surface Patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 9.7.2 Quadratic B´ezier Surface Patch . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 9.7.3 Cubic B´ezier Surface Patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 9.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 10 Analytic Geometry 147 10.1 Review of Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 10.1.1 Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 10.1.2 Intercept Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 10.1.3 Golden Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 10.1.4 Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Contents xi 10.1.5 Centre of Gravity of a Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 10.1.6 Isosceles Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 10.1.7 Equilateral Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 10.1.8 Right Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 10.1.9 Theorem of Thales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 10.1.10 Theorem of Pythagoras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 10.1.11 Quadrilaterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 10.1.12 Trapezoid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 10.1.13 Parallelogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 10.1.14 Rhombus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 10.1.15 Regular Polygon (n-gon) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 10.1.16 Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 10.2 2D Analytical Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 10.2.1 Equation of a Straight Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 10.2.2 The Hessian Normal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 10.2.3 Space Partitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 10.2.4 The Hessian Normal Form from Two Points . . . . 160 10.3 Intersection Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 10.3.1 Intersection Point of Two Straight Lines . . . . . . 161 10.3.2 Intersection Point of Two Line Segments . . . . . . 161 10.4 Point Inside a Triangle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 10.4.1 Area of a Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 10.4.2 Hessian Normal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 10.5 Intersection of a Circle with a Straight Line . . . . . . . . . . 168 10.6 3D Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 10.6.1 Equation of a Straight Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 10.6.2 Point of Intersection of Two Straight Lines . . . . . 171 10.7 Equation of a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 10.7.1 Cartesian Form of the Plane Equation. . . . . . . . 174 10.7.2 General Form of the Plane Equation. . . . . . . . . 176 10.7.3 Parametric Form of the Plane Equation . . . . . . . 176 10.7.4 Converting From the Parametric to the General Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 10.7.5 Plane Equation from Three Points . . . . . . . . . . 179 10.8 Intersecting Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 10.8.1 Intersection of Three Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 10.8.2 Angle between Two Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 10.8.3 Angle between a Line and a Plane . . . . . . . . . . 187 10.8.4 Intersection of a Line with a Plane. . . . . . . . . . 189 10.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 11 Barycentric Coordinates 193 11.1 Ceva’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 11.2 Ratios and Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 11.3 Mass Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

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