ERIC EJ994020: The Conscious Use (or Avoidance) of Metaphor in Outdoor Adventure Education

2012·0.3 MB·English

by  ERIC

Wilderness Expedition Conference
The Conscious Use (or Avoidance) of Metaphor in
Outdoor Adventure Education
By Simon Beames
Facilitated discussion before, during and outdoor educator. This practice was entirely
after experiences is widely accepted practice uncritical and was largely informed by
in the field of outdoor adventure education observing reviewing sessions led by more
(Gass, 1990; Greenaway, 1993; Priest & Gass, experienced senior instructors—none of
1997; Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988). These whom were qualified counsellors or licensed
facilitated sessions refer “to the organised therapists. My concern surrounding the
discussion, prior to or after an activity, that unconsidered use of metaphors by outdoor
has the intention of enabling participants to instructors has been so great that I have not
generalise what they have learnt to other life deliberately used any kind of metaphors in
settings” (Brown, 2002, p. 101). my practice in at least ten years—principally
because I suspected they may have as much
Much of the literature appears to house the potential to harm as they do to help.
assumption that individual learning may
be considerably restricted if participants’ Metaphor Literature
experiences are not processed with the
help of an external facilitator, as they The outdoor education-related literature
may not be able to make sufficiently clear on using metaphors is, of course, located
connections between program activities within a much greater corpus of writing in
and their daily lives on their own (Knapp, the field of linguistics. Knowles and Moon
1999; Luckner & Nadler, 1997; Schoel et (2006) view metaphors as “instances of non-
al., 1988). This business of making clear literal language that involve some kind of
connections between program and home is comparison or identification: if interpreted
central to courses with personal and social literally, they would be nonsensical,
development as their principal aim, yet impossible, or untrue” (p. 5). Widely
this fundamental concept of transfer lacks regarded as the seminal book on metaphors,
convincing support in the literature and Metaphors We Live By (Lakoff & Johnson,
has been described as outdoor adventure 1980; 2003) is based on the assumption that
education’s Achilles’ heel (Brown, 2010). “metaphor is pervasive everyday life, not
just in language, but in thought and action”
It is within the broad themes of facilitation (p. 3). Indeed, no one raises an eyebrow
and processing that the discourse when people refer to computers having
surrounding the use of metaphors as a “viruses” or colleagues being “on the same
means of helping participants make greater page.” For Lakoff and Johnson, metaphors
sense of their experiences exists. In this are primarily about sense-making and
paper, through an examination of the language is merely a way this complex
relevant metaphor literature, I examine process can be revealed.
the possibilities and pitfalls of outdoor
instructors using metaphors to enhance Knowles and Moon (2006) state that
their course facilitation in non-therapeutic metaphors employ concrete images to
contexts. The title of the paper is a play communicate abstract ideas that are difficult
on the title of Stephen Bacon’s seminal to explain. For example, “if we want to fully
S 1983 book, The Conscious Use of Metaphor in understand an abstract concept [e.g., love],
Y
A Outward Bound. we are better off using another concept that
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is more concrete, physical, or tangible [e.g.,
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My interest in learning more deeply about a building]” (Kovecses, 2010, p. 7). Similarly,
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A metaphors stems from the numerous times I Gass (1991) explains how metaphoric
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used personal and group metaphors during transfer happens when “parallel processes
24 my early career as an adventure-based in one learning situation become analogous
Wilderness Expedition Conference
to learning in another different, yet Metaphors in Practice, on the River
similar situation” (p. 6). These quotes lend
considerable rationale for this investigation During our paddling trip, my “official”
into metaphors and outdoor adventure metaphor session took place on the fifth of 14
education. If, as Knowles and Moon posit, days. At this point in the journey, I reasoned,
we might not understand many things in our people would have settled into their own
lives “except with the help of metaphorical routines of living on the tundra and would
models or analogies” (p. 4), it then behooves be able to concentrate on a more cerebral
outdoor educators to better understand task; setting up tents, packing canoes and
how they might facilitate this process more going to the bathroom had become routine
deliberately for the participants with whom and we had found a pleasant rhythm with
they are working. each other and the land. I asked members to
describe the group’s functioning by relating
Metaphors by the People and for the it to some kind of entity (e.g., a sea-going
People vessel, a computer, a bicycle).
My initial interrogation of the literature When the activity was introduced after
on metaphor indicates that it can bear two breakfast, ideas such as a canoe, a soccer
particular distinctions: First, metaphors team and a herd of caribou were suggested
can be generated by participants or as suitable metaphors for us conference
determined by facilitators. It may be that delegates. We did not decide on our group
self-generated metaphors are more powerful, metaphor there and then; rather, we revisited
meaningful and personally relevant the question that night after finishing
than those determined by instructors. our shepherd’s pie. As we were on the
Instructor-determined metaphors appear tundra and had come across hundreds and
to be particularly suited to courses with hundreds of caribou so far, there was no
specifically prescribed learning outcomes, disagreement to the proposal that we adopt
such as with therapeutic programs (cf. the herd of caribou as the metaphor for our
Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988; Gass, 1991) group. We were now 14 rangifer tarandus that
or development training programs. were free to go and graze on lichen—as the
metaphor goes. What was remarkable was
Second, metaphors can be used on an how our adoption of the herd of caribou
individual basis and with groups. I would metaphor directly influenced the way the
argue that caution should be exercised group interacted over the following nine
when using metaphors to describe other days.
individuals’ attributes, except within groups
possessing a collectively high degree of Sleeping Bull, Wolverines and Metaphors
trust and where all members are interested for Landscape
in receiving this kind of rather personal
feedback. When individuals are given The day after my metaphor session we
metaphors by others (e.g., Fred is like a rusty found ourselves with some free time before
chain on a bicycle) this can serve as a form dinner. Some people elected to explore
of direct feedback on their behaviour. In the surrounding landscape, some wrote
some contexts this may be desirable and in in their journals, others fished and some
others it may be entirely unjustifiable, as the slept. Despite being deliberately woken
potential for emotional harm is considerably three times, one of our group members—
heightened. Group metaphors, on the other our leader, as it turned out—was so much S
hand, can be used to explore behaviour enjoying his nap that he missed dinner Y
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during the course, or to consider the group’s entirely. The group member who read out the W
interactions after the course. The latter is next morning’s group journal entry reflected H
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particularly suited to teams that will be on the night before and how “Sleeping A
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working together after the course finishes Bull” had to eat his dinner cold. With that, a
(e.g., back in the office). moniker was born, and our leader was called 25
Wilderness Expedition Conference
Sleeping Bull by the rest of the “herd” for experiences. After all, if I believe that part
the remainder of the journey. This, however, of my job as an outdoor educator is to help
was only the beginning of the fun, as others learners make connections to the landscape
who distinguished themselves in unique and through which they are travelling, and if
distinct ways were often dubbed “Snoring I believe that metaphors can be a useful
Bull,” “Portaging Bull” or whatever name means of more deeply understanding our
was topical. experiences, then wasn’t I missing something
rather obvious? It is entirely supportable,
Five days after the initial generation of then, that encouraging individuals to
the caribou herd metaphor, I posed two construct a metaphor for the landscape may
questions over stoned wheat thins and enable them to more deeply understand their
peanut butter: What dangers threaten own connection to it.
caribou? And what nurtures
caribou? Among the answers
were wolverines and luscious
lichen, respectively. I then
enquired if there were any
wolverines lurking around
our group. Was there
anything out there that
could harm us—anything
that we should be wary of?
One person offered that a
“wolverine” could be our
somewhat relaxed attitudes
towards washing hands
Final Thoughts
before eating. Not washing hands could
lead to the spreading of illness (e.g., gastro-
As the bow of my canoe reached the brackish
intestinal sickness, colds and so on). Clearly,
water of Bathurst Inlet, I found myself
sickness could harm our herd of caribou and
agreeing with Stephen Bacon (1983) in
should be prevented. Examples of lichen that
that there is room for outdoor educators to
would sustain our herd could be helping
consciously use metaphors. After all, it seems
the kitchen crew in the morning, once one’s
undeniable that the caribou herd metaphor
personal kit was packed, and being sure to
enabled us to discuss the ways in which we
say please and thank-you around camp, so
interacted in camp and on the water, and in
that we did not take each others’ goodwill
ways that were different and complementary
for granted.
to our normal ways of communicating. The
caveat, of course, is that there are kinds
One night after dinner, the point was raised
of “metaphor pedagogy” (e.g., instructor
that my crude categorization of metaphors
determined, participants generating for other
included those for people and for activities,
participants) that may be best avoided in
but not for the land. For example, if people
conventional outdoor education contexts.
could be animals, and expeditions like
challenges in our daily lives, what could this
Finally, there appears to be much scope for
landscape represent to us? Is it like a warm
individuals using personal metaphors to
S and comforting blanket or like a scary film
Y explore their relationship with the landscape
A that constantly elicits feelings of anxiety?
through which they are travelling. For me,
W
H the river’s shores were open, welcoming
T This discussion showed me how perhaps and life affirming. Ironically, it was this so-
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I had been unwittingly perpetuating a
P called “barren” landscape that filled me with
very limited view of how metaphors can
pleasure, awe and peace.
26 be employed as a means of processing
Wilderness Expedition Conference
References Greenaway, R. (1993). Playback: A guide to
reviewing activities. Windsor: The
Bacon, S. (1983). The conscious use of metaphor Duke of Edinburgh Award.
in Outward Bound. Denver: Colorado
Outward Bound School. Knapp, C. (1999). Processing the adventure
experience. In S. Priest & J. Miles
Brown, M. (2002). The facilitator as (Eds.), Adventure programming (pp.
gatekeeper: A critical analysis of 219–225). State College, PA: Venture.
social order in facilitation sessions.
Journal of Adventure Education and Knowles, M., & Moon, R. (2006). Introducing
Outdoor Learning, 2(2), 101–112. metaphor. Abingdon: Routledge.
Brown, M. (2010). Transfer: Outdoor Kovescses, Z. (2010). Metaphor: A practical
education’s Achilles heel? Changing introduction (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford
participation as a viable option. University Press.
Australian Journal of Outdoor
Education, 14(1), 13–22. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (2003). Metaphors
we live by. London: University of
Gass, M. (1990). Transfer of learning in Chicago Press.
adventure education. In J. C. Miles &
S. Priest (Eds.), Adventure education Luckner, J., & Nadler, R. (1997). Processing
(pp. 199–208). State College, PA: the experience: Strategies to enhance
Venture. and generalize learning. Dubuque, IA:
Kendall/Hunt.
Gass, M. (1991). Enhancing metaphor
development in adventure therapy Priest, S., & Gass, M.A. (1997). Effective
programs. Journal of Experiential leadership in adventure programming.
Education, 14(2), 6–13. Champaign: Human Kinetics.
Gass, M. (1993). Adventure therapy: Therapeutic Schoel, J., Prouty, D., & Radcliffe, P. (1988).
applications of adventure programming. Islands of healing. Hamilton, MA:
Boulder, CO: The Association for Project Adventure.
Experiential Education.
Simon Beames directs the MSc in Outdoor
Education at the University of Edinburgh.
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