ERIC EJ959525: Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) as Defined and Interpreted by Early Childhood Preservice Teachers: Beliefs about DAP and Influences of Teacher Education and Field Experience

2011·0.31 MB·English

by  ERIC

Developmentally Appropriate Practice
(DAP) as Defined and Interpreted by Early
Childhood Preservice Teachers: Beliefs
About DAP and Influences of Teacher
Education and Field Experience
Hae Kyoung Kim: Towson University
This study examines early childhood preservice teachers’ beliefs about developmentally appropriate
practices (DAP) and how they define DAP and interpret principles and characteristics of DAP. The study
shows that early childhood preservice teachers possess relatively strong beliefs about DAP. Preservice
teachers who were further along in the teacher training program demonstrated stronger DAP beliefs
than teachers who had just begun the teacher training program. Similarly, teachers who had undergone
more field placements reported stronger beliefs about DAP. Teachers’ own definitions and principles
of developmentally appropriate/inappropriate practice were examined. Implications of the findings are
discussed for preparing teachers to implement appropriate practice.
Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) how teachers’ beliefs have impacted their already
has been considered a key concept in early developed teaching practices. The preservice
childhood education. Although the NAEYC educational stage, however, is a critical period
DAP guidelines have achieved a canonical place in which new teachers begin to develop and
in early childhood education, there are diverse elaborate upon their own beliefs (Tschannen-
interpretations and understandings what DAP is, Moran, Woolfok Hoy, & Hoy, 1998; Weinstein,
how to implement it, and how important it is in 1998). Once beliefs are developed, it is difficult to
relation to overall classroom practice. (Parker & change them (Smith, 1997).
Neuharth-Pritchett, 2006; Smith, 1997; Shiakou
& Belsky, 2009; Swadener & Kessler, 1991). Teacher education is one of the most
The state of understanding of DAP of teachers is important factors in becoming a professional
reflected in the variety of teacher beliefs about the educator and profoundly influences teachers’
importance of DAP. beliefs and teaching practices (Smith, 1997;
Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Preservice
Among the studies of teacher beliefs about teachers’ beliefs are constructed through both
DAP, inservice teachers’ beliefs have been the medium of teacher education programs and
emphasized over those of preservice teachers. through personal and professional experiences
This may be due to researchers concern with (i.e., practicum, internship). Once these beliefs
SRATE Journal Summer 2011, Vol. 20, Number 2 Page 12
are shaped, they are difficult to change (Smith, judgmental functions of beliefs and replace
1997; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Given predisposition with an imperative to action”
this background, an examination of preservice (Pajares, 1992, p.314). Teachers’ beliefs are
teachers’ beliefs throughout a range of closely related to teachers’ thought processes and
professional stages can be a powerful diagnostic essential to establishing an emotional attitude
for understanding the factors that influence beliefs (Cassidy & Lawrence, 2000; Clark & Peterson,
regarding DAP. Furthermore, research that 1986; K. E. Smith, 1997; Smith & Shepard,
examines different beliefs about the definitions of 1988). Beliefs may be defined in terms of a
DAP among early childhood educators is required disposition that an individual possess regarding
to encourage understanding among teacher the truth of a proposition and represent a teacher’s
educators and researchers. disposition toward action (Brown & Cooney,
1982; Smith & Shepard, 1988). Related to action,
Literature review beliefs can be inferred from a teacher’s behavior.
Research has demonstrated that teachers’
DAP is a broad, overarching concept that beliefs and decision-making process are related
pertains to diverse developmental areas for because daily decisions are based on their beliefs
children in the 0-8 age category. DAP statements (Piotrkowski, Botsko, & Matthews, 2000).
were revised in order to adapt to newer
educational needs and criteria in 1997 and 2009. The emphasis on teachers’ beliefs is based
Revised statements in 1997 emphasized three on the fact that beliefs are related to and affect
kinds of important knowledge for educators - teaching practices and interactions with children
age appropriateness, individual appropriateness, (File, 1994; McMullen, 1997; Kowalski, Pretti-
and cultural appropriateness. (Bredekamp & Frontczak, & Johnson, 2001; Pajares, 1992;
Copple, 1997). Most recent DAP statements Piotrkowski et al., 2000; Stipek & Byler, 1997;
published in 2009 still put three important Vartuli, 2005). The research involving the
kinds of information including age, individual, relationship between beliefs and practices can be
and social and cultural context. In addition, in categorized in two ways. First, the relationship
order to reflect a newer framework for optimal that exists between teachers’ stated beliefs and
education and critical issues in early childhood observed practice. Second, the relationship
education , revised principles and guidelines for between teachers’ stated beliefs and self-reported
decision about DAP were presented including practice.
the following five provisions: creating a caring
community of learners, teaching to enhance As with research that focuses on early
development and learning, planning curriculum childhood inservice teachers, there has been
to achieve important goals, assessing children’s limited research that centers on preservice
development and learning, and establishing teachers. Preservice teachers’ beliefs are
reciprocal relationships with families (Copple, & important because teachers develop their own
Bredekemp, 2009). Despite specific guidelines perspectives and beliefs early in the preservice
and examples in DAP, there is not a unique teaching stage (Smith, 1997; Tschannen-Moran
concept of developmentally idealistic practice. et al., 1998). Coursework has been demonstrated
Teachers from diverse cultural, social, and to affect preservice teachers’ self-efficacy.
linguistic background may differently understand, However, teaching experience (i.e., internship,
apply, and implement appropriate practice. apprenticeship) has also a greater influence on
self-efficacy for elementary preservice teachers
The term ‘belief’ has been defined as “values, (Housego, 1992; Hoy & Woolfolk, 1990;
which house the evaluative, comparative, and Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Specifically,
SRATE Journal Summer 2011, Vol. 20, Number 2 Page 13
some preservice teachers’ self-efficacy declined which students proceed as a cohort. The
with teaching experience resulting from the preservice teachers at each year (e.g., junior,
difficulties and challenges of teaching in actual senior, graduate year) had taken the same
school settings (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). courses. Regarding field experiences, seniors
Prospective teachers experience the reality of and juniors complete four different types of pre-
complex, dynamic situations and make multiple internship (pre-K, K, special education, 1st-3rd
decisions as teachers upon entering a student grade); students in masters’ year do one-semester
teaching practicum or internship. Student teachers internship. Once they finish master programs,
may negotiate their previous beliefs as they adapt students are given a M.Ed. degree.
and protect their self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran
et al., 1998; Weinstein, 1998). Ninety-seven percent of all participants were
between the ages of nineteen and twenty four
Preservice teachers’ beliefs may represent a years old (M=21.85, SD=1.82). The majority
foundation on which professional development of the participants were Caucasian (74 %) and
begins. Thus, extending the research to include Hispanic (14 %). Twenty-five (38.5 %) of the
an examination of preservice teachers’ beliefs participants were juniors and twenty four (36.9%)
may enhance the professional development of the participants were seniors. Each junior
of prospective teachers and impact teacher participant had two practicum experiences,
preparation programs. Reflecting upon the needs and each senior participant had four practicum
discussed, research questions are presented. experiences. All of the graduate students had
completed four practicum experiences and one
1.What are the beliefs of early childhood semester of internship. The average length of time
preservice teachers about developmentally spent in field placements for all participants was
appropriate teaching practice (DAP)? about twenty weeks. Three interviewees were
twenty-one years old and all were females. Two
2.What is the relationship between early were in their senior year and one was in her junior
childhood preservice teachers’ beliefs about year.
DAP and length of academic status and field
experiences? Instruments
3.What are the teachers’ own definition and In order to assess beliefs about DAP, the
principles of DAP? Teacher Beliefs Scale (TBS) was used. The TBS
was developed to assess the early childhood
Methods teachers’ beliefs and practices about DAP. TBS
was originally developed by Charlesworth, Hart,
Participants Burts, & Hernandez (1991) based on NAEYC
DAP guidelines published in 1986. Then, TBS has
A total of sixty-five early childhood been revised based on revised NAEYC guidelines.
preservice teachers participated in this study. TBS consists of thirty-seven items including
The participants enrolled in an early childhood one item that asks the amount of influence in
education program in a university located in planning and implementing instruction and thirty-
southeastern area in the United States. This six items related to twenty-two developmentally
teacher education program has a three-year appropriate and fourteen inappropriate beliefs
program that students enter as juniors and questions. DAP consisted of appropriate social,
complete at the end of a masters year. It is a appropriate individualization, appropriate literacy
highly structured sequence of courses, through activities, appropriate integrated curriculum
SRATE Journal Summer 2011, Vol. 20, Number 2 Page 14
beliefs, inappropriate activities and materials, used to code protocols (Spradley, 1979). The
and inappropriate structure. Internal consistency pseudo names - Kathy, Sera, and Amy - are used
was conducted using Cronbach’s alpha: to identify each interviewee to protect participant
developmentally inappropriate activities and confidentiality. To reduce researcher bias and
materials (r =.84), appropriate social item (r =.77), to support trustworthiness of the study, member
appropriate individualization (r =.70), appropriate checking and peer review techniques were
literacy activities (r =.60), appropriate integrated employed.
curriculum beliefs (r =.66), and inappropriate
structure (r =.58) (Charlesworth, Hart, Burts, Results and Discussion
Thomasson, Mosley & Fleege, 1993).
Beliefs about DAP
Procedure
The mean score of TBS items assessing
Teacher information questionnaire and the DAP was 57.32 with a standard deviation of
Teacher Beliefs Scale (TBS) were administered 4.8. The scores ranged from 47 to 65 with a
by the researcher in person. Each survey packet possible range of 13 to 65. This study supports
was given a number, and these numbers were used the idea that preservice teachers believe that it is
instead of names to identify each participant and important to use practices that are identified as
to maintain confidentiality of participants. After developmentally appropriate. This result is similar
collecting questionnaires, in order to examine to previous studies on preservice teachers (File &
in-depth understanding of preservice teachers’ Gullo, 2002; Stipek & Byler, 1997).
beliefs about DAP, individual interviews with
open-ended questions were conducted with three Relationship between beliefs about DAP and
preservice teachers. Three of the participants from academic status, field experiences
the larger questionnaire study were randomly
contacted to participate in follow-up interviews. Means (with standard deviations in
parenthesis) for groups who are juniors, seniors
All interviews were audio-taped and and graduate students were 54.68(5.45),
transcribed. Interview transcripts were coded 59.29(3.09), and 58.50(4.36), respectively.
from the interviews based on open coding system The effect of academic status was statistically
(Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Domain analysis was significant, F (2, 62) = 7.40, p = .001. To find
Table 1. Post-hoc comparison tests for academic status in DAP beliefs.
Mean
Groups Std. Error Sig.
Differences
Senior -4.61** 1.265 .002
Junior
Graduate -3.82* 1.417 .032
Junior 4.61** 1.265 .002
DAP Senior
Graduate .79 1.428 .858
Junior 3.82* 1.417 .032
Graduate
Senior -.79 1.428 .858
* p < .05, **p < .005, ***p< .001
SRATE Journal Summer 2011, Vol. 20, Number 2 Page 15
the location of the statistically significant seniors. Diverse experiences in different settings
mean differences the Scheffe procedure was and length of experience may affect teacher
implemented. First, the difference between juniors beliefs about DAP because these experiences may
and seniors was statistically significant, t(62) = offer opportunities to observe DAP and reflect on
4.61, p = .002. Secondly, the difference between DAP concepts.
juniors and graduates was statistically significant,
t(62) = 3.82, p = .032. Post-hoc comparisons were Meaning of DAP defined by teachers
presented in Table 1.
Using qualitative analysis to understand
Seniors and graduate students held more DAP is effective because people have their own
positive beliefs about DAP than did the junior relevance structure, and teachers have their own
students. This indicates that the length of definitions and beliefs with respect to DAP. Kathy
teacher education and amount of coursework was the only participant who mentioned about the
has a positive effect on beliefs about DAP. This three components in DAP. This may indicate that
is consistent with research on the influence of Kathy has correct and sufficient knowledge of
coursework in teacher education (File & Gullo, DAP. Sera described the components of age and
2002; Hoy & Woolfolk, 1990; Tschannen-Moran ability level, and Amy did not discuss any of the
et al., 1998; Smith, 1997). three components.
There was a statistically significant Kathy: DAP is all about looking at each
relationship between beliefs about music and child individually and seeing what they need and
number of practicum placements (n = 65, r what their strengths are, what their weaknesses
=.364, p = .003). It indicates that beliefs about are, what you should focus on? You always hear
DAP positively related to numbers of practicum about that it is needs to be culturally appropriate.
placements. The relationship between beliefs You need to look at where they are coming from
about DAP and length of practicum experience what their life is like outside of a school. It is age-
also found statistically significant (n = 64, r = appropriate. For what level they’re at, what their
.384, p = .002). This implies stronger beliefs ages- just individually looking at them as a person
about DAP is related to longer field experiences. because no teacher would be at the same place
and need to realize that in your classroom.”
Preservice teachers who had more field
placements for longer period displayed stronger Kathy: what children are interested in, what
beliefs about DAP. Previous studies have also they need to focus on, what teachers think it
demonstrated a relationship between field would be important for children as an individual.
experience (i.e., internship, apprenticeship) and
teacher beliefs (Housego, 1992; Hoy & Woolfolk, Sera and Amy had some similarities in their
1990; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). These definition, particularly pertaining to the provision
studies showed internship or apprenticeship of appropriate activities depending on children’s
has a significant influence on teacher beliefs. ability through a modification of difficulty level.
Particularly, the graduate students had completed
an internship and had taken more than 60 credits Sera: DAP is just a way to have an
in early childhood education coursework, appropriate practice in your classroom so that
including early childhood curriculum. Therefore, you’re applying activities and giving activities
graduate students had more opportunities to to students so that they are able to complete that.
gain DAP related knowledge and develop their They are easy enough for them to complete but
own beliefs about DAP than did the juniors and also difficult enough for them to be challenged
SRATE Journal Summer 2011, Vol. 20, Number 2 Page 16
but it’s completed successfully, eventually with Sera: it’s interactive type of circle time,
help of the teacher or help of the students. It’s where kids are communicating and teachers
not just academic work and kids need to play communicating back to them. Interactive type
and have fun , also to learn also just the activities of classroom where the kids feel safe to talk and
they’re doing appropriate to their age and to their discuss anything they want to talk about. Like
abilities. an indefinable structure. There is a rule that are
set; you have to take turns, you have to but now
Amy: I would define DAP as practices everybody can see there is structure.
particularly in education that fit the needs of the
child and that they fit the needs the child. Amy: making practices that help the child
grow particularly in areas that will help them
Regarding DAP, all three preservice teachers succeed in school. It’s to take their potential that
addressed their own definitions of DAP. The they have and to grow that potential and make
three terms are key concepts in the revised DAP them be able to do things that they want. Kind of
guidelines (Bredcamp & Copple, 1997). Amy, the scaffolding them up, so they’ll be able to succeed.
junior student, was unable to identify any of these Whatever the most, it’s different for different
concepts. This supports that graduate students kids. The practices on that classroom very like
and senior students have stronger beliefs about specialized to each child because they all were at
DAP than junior students corresponding to the such different levels.
quantitative results.
The most commonly mentioned aspect of
Principles to Implement DAP all three interviews about DAP principles was
the concept of the need for interaction. Kathy
The participants had similarities and primarily focused on the children’s perspective,
differences in their discussions of important and Sera emphasized classroom structure. Amy
principles and definitions surrounding DAP. focused on helping each individual child’s needs.
Diverse perspectives on the principles of DAP Table 2 shows the comparison of the principles.
were evident. Description of DAP shows teachers focus more
individual child development instead of focusing
Kathy: what children are interested in, what on development based on socio-cultural context
they need to focus on, what you think it would be compared with the principles for DAP in NAEYC
important for them as an individual. I think they statements (Bredekamp, 1997).
need to be active and involved in learning in to
use the term ‘hands-on’. There are plans made Implications for Teacher Education
by the teachers, but the children are involved in
making choices about what they learn. I think that The findings demonstrated that early
the exchange between peers is very valuable. childhood preservice teachers possess strong
Table 2. Comparison of DAP principles.
Kathy Sera Amy
‘interest’ based ‘interactive ‘succeed’
‘being active’ communicative’ ‘scaffolding’
‘hands-on’ ‘rules and structure’ ‘interaction’
‘making choices’ ‘specialized to each child’.
‘exchange between peers’
SRATE Journal Summer 2011, Vol. 20, Number 2 Page 17
beliefs about DAP. The results, however, with a focus on development. Examining domain
revealed an imbalance between pedagogical specific beliefs may offer a better understanding
knowledge and subject knowledge among of teachers’ belief systems (Fang, 1996). Teacher
preservice teachers. In the set of interviews, the beliefs develop and change through experiences
teachers who held stronger beliefs about DAP and learning. Specifically, once the teachers enter
demonstrated knowledge about key principles the teaching practice as novice teachers, they may
of DAP. They noticed that teachers play a key encounter different beliefs, conflicts with their
role in the implementation of DAP. However, own beliefs, or difficulties implementing certain
their descriptions of DAP and criticisms of practices. Although preservice teachers possess
inappropriate practice were primarily focused strong beliefs about DAP, they may have conflicts
on ‘how to teach’, not ‘what to teach’. The between their understanding of the importance
discrepancy between DAP and teaching content implementing play-based activities and the
has been proposed in terms of how to implement pressure of academic achievement. How do early
DAP on teaching subjects and learning standards childhood teacher beliefs about DAP change
(Da Ros-Voseles, Danyi, & Aurillo, 2003; as time progresses? What are the factors that
Goldstein, 2007). Although some teachers influence this change?
strongly supported DAP, they might have faced
with difficulties in teaching specific subjects in References
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Appendix
Teacher Beliefs Scale
Charlesworth, R., Hart, C. H., Burts, D.C., Thomasson R. H., Mosley, J., & Fleege, P. O. (1993).
Measuring the developmentally appropriateness of kindergarten teachers’ beliefs and practices. Early
Childhood Research Quarterly, 8, 255-276.
1. Rank the following (1-6) by the amount of influence you feel that each has on the way you
plan and implement instruction. (Please be sure to use each number only once.)
Parents _________
Parish or school system policy _________
Principal _________
Teacher (yourself) _________
State regulation _________
Other teachers _________
Directions: please respond to the following items by circling the number that most nearly
represents YOUR PERSONAL BELIEFS about the importance of that item in a kindergarten
program.
nt
Item 1 - Not imporaat all 2 - Not Very Important 3 - Fairly Important 4 - Very Important 5 - Extremely Important
As an evaluation technique in the kindergarten program,
2 1 2 3 4 5
standardized group tests are .
As an evaluation technique in the kindergarten program, teacher
3 1 2 3 4 5
observation is .
SRATE Journal Summer 2011, Vol. 20, Number 2 Page 20
nt
Item 1 - Not imporaat all 2 - Not Very Important 3 - Fairly Important 4 - Very Important 5 - Extremely Important
As an evaluation technique in the kindergarten program,
4 1 2 3 4 5
performance on worksheets and workbooks is
It is for kindergarten activities to be responsive
5 1 2 3 4 5
to individual differences in interest.
It is for kindergarten activities to be responsive
6 1 2 3 4 5
to individual differences in development.
It is that each curriculum area be taught as
7 1 2 3 4 5
separate subjects at separate times.
It is for teacher-pupil interactions in kindergarten
8 to help develop children’s self-esteem and positive feelings 1 2 3 4 5
toward learning.
It is for children to be allowed to select many of
9 their own activities from a variety of learning areas that the 1 2 3 4 5
teacher has prepared (blocks, science center, etc.)
It is for children to be allowed to cut their own
10 shapes, perform their own steps in an experiment, and plan 1 2 3 4 5
their own creative drama, art, and writing activities.
It is for students to work silently and alone on
11 1 2 3 4 5
seatwork.
It is for kindergarteners to learn through active
12 1 2 3 4 5
exploration.
It is for kindergarteners to learn through
13 1 2 3 4 5
interaction with other children.
Workbooks and/or ditto sheets are to the
14 1 2 3 4 5
kindergarten program.
Flashcards (numbers, letters, and/or words) are to
15 1 2 3 4 5
the kindergarten program for instructional purposes.
The basal reader is to the kindergarten reading
16 1 2 3 4 5
program.
In terms of effectiveness, it is for the teacher to
17 talk to the whole group and make sure everyone participates 1 2 3 4 5
in the same activity.
In terms of effectiveness, it is for the teacher to
move among groups and individuals, offering suggestions,
18 1 2 3 4 5
asking questions, and facilitating children’s involvement
with materials and activities.
SRATE Journal Summer 2011, Vol. 20, Number 2 Page 21