ERIC EJ959025: Career Aspirations and Self-Efficacy of European Psychology Students

2011·0.09 MB·English

by  ERIC

Career aspirations and self-efficacy of
European psychology students
Simon Knight & Maris Vainre
Without understanding career options, and pre-requisites around Europe, it is not clear what the implications
are of the Bologna Process for the creation of a ‘European Higher Education Area’ for psychology, and more
specifically the basis for the Psychology Diploma for practitioner qualification (Lunt, 2005). However, any
research into ‘employability’ and graduate destinations must take account the desired destination, and levels
of ‘self-efficacy’ towards enacting any particular career path. In the current study, 284 European psychology
students’ career aspirations and self-efficacy were measured. A majority of participants claim to have received
no careers guidance (64.8 per cent), and a sizeable group (39.1 per cent) have a mismatch between the job
area they would like to enter, and the area they think they are most likely to enter. Implications of the results
as well as limitations of the study are discussed.
Keywords: career decision-making; career self-efficacy; psychology teaching.
T
HE AIM of the Bologna Process has Within the UK, for example, the Society’s
been to harmonise the European Graduate Basis for Chartered membership
education area, by setting a structure of (GBC, formerly Graduate Basis for Registra-
degrees. Despite some significant shifts from tion (GBR)) is hailed as a useful tool to stan-
alternative models in some signatory coun- dardise degree content, and provides a
tries, a decade after signing the Bologna signal to both students and employers
declaration, there are still broad differences regarding general employability. The impli-
in teaching and learning experiences across cation to both is that GBC offers a ‘bench-
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in mark’ standard for the skills and knowledge
Europe and between subjects (CHERI & of psychology. However, there is some
HEFCE, 2009). This raises a question regard- concern that it is biased too far towards the
ing between, and within country differences study and production of research, and away
in psychology teaching. Before the Bologna from other careers. The concern is that it is
declaration was signed, Newstead and Maki- neither clear that the majority of students
nen (1997) found that although there were wish to, or can, enter research careers – thus
variations across psychology curricula, there GBC may not represent a set of criteria most
were also broad commonalities in the basic suited to developing student’s core compe-
areas covered by most courses. Still, to date, tencies (Cartmell, 2008). Others disagree,
questions remain regarding graduates’ suggesting GBC provides evidence for skills,
competencies after obtaining a degree – a but it could be improved either by the inclu-
key variable in the higher education, as the sion of work experience as compulsory
combination of skills and knowledge defines (Dean, 2008), or – whilst maintaining a core
the fresh psychologists’ options in the labour content – provide flexibility for vocational
market. Furthermore, in different countries training aimed at employability (Popovic,
competence levels required for a similar 2008). Yet others claim we should put our
position can vary (Roe, 2002). For example, money – or, assessment – where our employ-
in the US, psychology graduates may find ability claims are. For example, we should
themselves in comparatively less skilled jobs ensure that we assess ‘communication skills’
relative to their degree quality (Rajecki & and other so called transferable skills if we
Borden, 2009). are to claim they are key transferable skills
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 47
Simon Knight & Maris Vainre
inherent to the GBC accredited degree and literacy skills, as well as knowledge of a
(MacAndrew, 2008). particular domain as evidenced by qualifica-
Indeed, Radford’s (2008) discussion arti- tions in that subject. Furthermore, any
cle is more critical, raising concerns regard- research into ‘employability’ and graduate
ing the narrow nature of GBC given the destinations must take account not only of
varied contexts in which psychology may be the destination, but also the desired destina-
viewed, and the wide discipline it could be tion, and levels of ‘self-efficacy’ towards
construed as. In particular, he raises the enacting any particular career path, which
concern that many graduates of psychology Betz, Klein and Taylor (1996) suggest is
will not pursue a career in the discipline, and crucial for understanding careers’ progres-
therefore, psychology should aim at training sion.
which assists students in their more varied According to a European Federation of
career goals – a task which he argues, the Psychologists’ Associations (EFPA) report
field is well placed to do. (Tikkanen et al., 2007, p.4) ‘…21 out of the
Of course, in order to understand the 32 EFPA Member countries already have
implications of this suggestion for psychol- some form of legal regulation of the profes-
ogy teaching, within and outside of the UK, sion and in five more countries the regula-
the various career paths students follow must tory process has been started by the national
be researched. Without understanding government.’ The same report (p.14) also
career options, and pre-requisites around estimated ‘that the number of professional
Europe, it is not clear what the implications psychologists in Europe will be about 371,000
of the Bologna Process are for the creation in the year 2010,’ representing a 27 per cent
of a ‘European Higher Education Area’ for increase in the five years since 2005, but a
psychology. shortfall of 179,000 psychologists towards the
Little research has been done into the EFPA goal of one psychologist per 1000 of
variety of options across European psychology the population covered by EFPA. Under-
courses, although Lunt’s (1998) somewhat standing the careers options and desires of
outdated article suggests that courses differ students is important in understanding the
quite widely both in content and structure. role statutory regulation has to play in ensur-
However, even at that stage an ‘Americanisa- ing recruitment targets are met, and more
tion’ was bringing courses closer together to specifically, that recruitment is of high quality
move towards a more cognitive, and modu- trained graduates who wish to be entering
larised degree (Newstead & Makinen, 1997); the profession they are pursuing.
the Bologna Process has no doubt continued
that path. Still, within Europe, the content of Career decision-making self-efficacy
degree courses should be understood in the Betz, Klein and Taylor’s (1996) concern is
context of psychology graduates’ local career that students must not only have the capabil-
paths, especially so in the context of the ity to succeed, but an awareness of how to
creation of the Psychology Diploma for prac- utilise this capability on the job market, and
titioners (Lunt, 2005)1. to match their capabilities to that market.
As well as gained qualifications, employ- They must thus have the ability to form accu-
ability depends on the market in which one rate beliefs about both, and make accurate
is situated. It can thus be thought of as the judgements regarding their goals and steps
combination of market and ‘job skills’ – required to meet them. Research has shown
which are debatable and probably localised a link between self-efficacy and feeling confi-
to a certain extent, but can be expected to dent in choosing a career path (e.g. Betz &
include things such as communication, IT, Voyten, 1997). For example, Fouad, Cotter,
1 The diploma – EuroPsy – was launched in 2009 and is being implemented country by country.
See: www.efpa.eu/europsy/current-state-of-europsy
48 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2
Career aspirations and self-efficacy of European psychology students
and Kantamneni (2009) showed that when under a variety of systems and using a variety
taught how to make a career-related decision, of means including internships, lectures,
students’ career decision-making difficulties problem-based learning, and so on.
decreased and career self-efficacy increased. In light of the standardised education
These results show the necessity to educate system and creation of the pan-European
students in planning their career as these psychologist diploma, there is a need to
skills increase the likelihood of students’ measure the extent to which current curric-
success at the labour market. Furthermore, ula prepare students for the labour market,
better career decision-making can also opti- and as a corollary to that – how well prepared
mise the time and expense used on resources they feel to pursue a particular career path.
to educate future psychologists (see also, The aim of the study reported in this
Reese & Miller, 2006). Nevertheless, Brewer’s paper was to look into the latter question –
(2009) study of one post-1992 English univer- how well prepared students feel to pursue
sity using a questionnaire methodology particular career paths. We anticipated that:
found a low level of career service use 1. Students who report receiving careers
amongst undergraduates with a lack of aware- guidance will have a higher career
ness regarding available facilities. decision-making self-efficacy.
Career decision-making self-efficacy can, 2. Students who report a ‘friendlier
therefore, be thought of as the set of beliefs environment’ in terms of access to their
an individual holds regarding their ability to ‘chosen’ fields, are more likely to have
effectively research, and make decisions higher self-efficacy. This should be
regarding, career options. This will include reflected in:
an awareness of the career choices available, a. An increased self-efficacy in those
an understanding of the requirements of students who wish to enter a career
those options and in particular how those they believe it is likely they will enter.
requirements might be acted upon and b. An increased self-efficacy in those
relate to current skills and qualification, an students who intend to enter a career
awareness of resources to research careers – for which their qualification – i.e. a
include advice services, and some actionable psychology degree – is required.
planning towards a particular career goal 3. There will be broad differences across
(Betz & Voyten, 1997). HEIs in students reported desired versus
Local circumstances thus make it ill likely career paths, and the levels of
advised to explore and compare simply how support that students report receiving.
many jobs in a certain sector of psychology
exist, and how many are filled by psychology Method
graduates, as this would fail to give informa- Participants
tion regarding how well students fit in to Participants were recruited using a mixture
their local environment. Instead, a compari- of online advertising via participation lists,
son of how prepared students feel – what Facebook groups related to psychology
their career decision-making self-efficacy students, and posters and advertising slips at
level is – can offer insights into how universi- the EFPSA Congress held in May. Participants
ties are preparing students for the local were required to be enrolled on a psychology
circumstances. Of course, the nature of that degree; the definition of this was left ‘broad’
education may vary country to country – with such that students identifying themselves as
some preferring an apprenticeship path, and being ‘psychology’ students were eligible, in
others a view of knowledge being ‘gifted’ to order to avoid excluding, for example, those
students; however, while no doubt some of who were enrolled on UK based non-GBC
the focus changes, a career decision-making accredited degrees. In total, 284 participants
self-efficacy could, one imagines, be built up were recruited, 233 (82 per cent) were
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 49
Simon Knight & Maris Vainre
female, 51 (18 per cent) male. The mean age Betz & Taylor, 1994) with authors’ own ques-
was 23.85 (SD=4.02), with a range of 32 years. tions (which are reproduced in Appendix 1).
The majority (N=164, 57.7 per cent) of partic- The five-point CDMSE scale (which we adopt
ipants were enrolled on a Masters or equiva- here) has a high reliability of .95 (Paulsen,
lent level degree. Ninety-seven (34.2 per 2001; Smith, 2001, cited in Betz & Taylor,
cent) were on a Bachelors programme, and 1994).
PhD students comprised 12 (4.2 per cent), Validity is good for the CDMSE, in partic-
with 11 (3.9 per cent) stating ‘other’. ular ecological validity related to behavioural
Participants submitted their degree title in decisions is positively reported (Betz &
a freeform text. Two-hundred-and-forty-two Taylor, 1994). As discussed in the measure
(85.2 per cent) gave ‘psychology’ as the manual, there is conflicting evidence regard-
degree title. A range of other titles were given ing the factorial validity of the measure; it is
covering a variety of other facets of psychology. thus suggested that total scores are used to
Students were from 27 countries, and 82 give an overall self-efficacy measure – a
universities. Of the countries, those with suggestion which we apply here.
over 10 participants were: Cyprus (N=17);
UK (England and Wales) (N=18); Lithuania Results
(N=19); Estonia (N=28); Finland (N=54); Regarding the requirement for psychology
and Croatia (N=59); totalling 195 students, to enter a chosen career, most participants
68.66 per cent of the total number (see wished to pursue a career where a degree in
Appendix 2). psychology was required: 255 (89.8 per cent)
with only 29 participants (10.2 per cent)
Procedure reporting that psychology was not a require-
An online questionnaire was created using ment for their chosen career.
Google forms. Following the various dissemi- Despite this requirement presumably
nation outlets, participants took a web-link to providing some filter for entry to careers, 111
the survey. Participants were informed of the participants (39.1 per cent) had a mismatch
Society’s Code of Ethics and Conduct, the nature between their desired and the most likely
of the research and questionnaire, and the career path; that is, they wish to follow career
likely duration completion would take. paths which they think it is unlikely they’ll be
able to follow. At the same time, 173 (60.9per
Materials/Questionnaire cent) participants reported a match – believ-
This questionnaire combined the Career ing it to be likely they will be able to follow the
Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale (CDMSE; career path they wish to (see Table 1).
Table 1: Numbers of students who intend to enter a degree for which psychology is
required, have a match/mismatch between desired and likely career path, and have
received any sort of careers guidance.
Between-Subjects Factors
Variable Value Label N
Psychology Degree No 29
Required Yes 255
Job Mismatch Match 173
Mismatch 111
Guidance Received No 184
Yes 100
50 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2
Career aspirations and self-efficacy of European psychology students
Of those participants reporting that matches and mismatches across fields.
psychology was not required to enter the Concerningly, this is true of all levels of qual-
career path they desired (N=29), 10 were ification as indicated in Table 3.
studying for a Bachelors, 15 a Masters, two a This indicates that for most fields, a high
PhD, and two ‘other’ with no obvious differ- proportion believe they will enter a job when
ences in degree title, desired or probable they would rather enter a different career.
career paths. This is the case even when other respon-
dents would wish to enter that area, but
Destinations think yet another field is more likely. It is also
Two fields, construction and property, and worth noting that, two participants were not
engineering and manufacturing, were not sure what their most desired job was, but had
reported as ‘most likely’ or ‘most desired’ by put a ‘most likely’ job – one assumed to
any respondents. Table 2 shows response pursue a career in the financial sector and
rates for all other fields. the other in information technology.
The difference between each field’s A significant group wished to enter a range
desirability and entry likelihood is illustrated of professions which they do not think it is
by Figure 1 which shows the breakdown of likely they will be able to.
Table 2: Students’ assessments of the most likely job they will get and their desired job.
Most Likely job Most Desired Job
Field of work N % N %
Administration and management 6 2.11 3 1.06
Advertising, marketing and PR 10 3.52 10 3.52
Charity and voluntary work 7 2.46 5 1.76
Creative arts, performing arts and design 4 1.41 18 6.34
Education 27 9.51 15 5.28
Financial sector 1 0.35 0 0
Health provision 49 17.25 44 15.49
Hospitality and events management 4 1.41 4 1.41
Human resources and employment 35 12.32 22 7.75
Information technology 1 0.35 0 0
Law enforcement and protection 5 1.76 10 3.52
Legal profession 1 0.35 3 1.06
Leisure, sport and tourism 1 0.35 3 1.06
Media and broadcasting 0 0.00 4 1.41
Other 28 9.86 33 11.62
Publishing and journalism 1 0.35 1 0.35
Research (i.e. a scientific career) 62 21.83 66 23.24
Retailing, buying and selling 0 0 1 0.35
Social care and guidance work 42 14.79 42 14.79
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 51
Simon Knight & Maris Vainre
–
d
gure 1: Illustration of most probable job areas for psychology graduates (split by whether these are desirei.e. their desire and most likely match – or not), and desired areas which are not matched by most likely. nttyntg)rnkmynmgkegrRdroennnrgrtrnnnooooPynessuoohrteeeogiiiiiiie iieacstrtstlwwstmmmdrllrlopauceassi nOuoeanvsae lesncyeeotUnsotyoecoafc ctuoggr rrlrcth horod dapauacdlaaa gpncrpcrndfa i ionntEPncp aegfduymonnahjaain tdisn n ntr atultddmm peangaibiaeanl ulmnn a ngnteok mo dngdnareasdiiervyrinoicFt nHa o tonLu dtngsdapsadmaifanb nntenn smnra sce v aaeoian a,e,,uhmrg.eepgi i oec doetrgsrn yn re.iitdrieuf,insttuilsisac(nlMbnoasist niiorrciIir arruapoateohse attrP l ehLfsCecaye lenireaCrntiRnv ceavcinidiloge iimaantwAsSntamiediaElepRcALursCHoH Probable and desiredProbable but not desiredDesired but not probable
Fi
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
52 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2
Career aspirations and self-efficacy of European psychology students
Table 3: Students experiencing a match versus mismatch in desired and likely job by
qualification level.
Per cent Percent
matched mismatched
Bachelors 31.80 (55) 37.80 (42)
Masters 59.50 (103) 55.50 (61)
PhD 5.80 (10) 1.80 (2)
Other 2.90 (5) 5.40 (6)
Total 100 (173) 100 (111)
Note: Raw figures in brackets.
Career guidance mismatch on efficacy (F(1)=0.30, p=.59) nor
With regard to guidance received, 184 (64.8 was there a significant interaction between
per cent) reporting not having received any having a psychology degree and receiving
career’s guidance, while 100 (35.2 per cent) career guidance (F(1)=0.89, p=.36, see Table
said they had. Of those who had received 5). In addition, there was no significant
guidance, most (278, 94 per cent of that interaction between job mismatch and
group), reported receiving more than one receiving career guidance on efficacy
kind, while only six (six per cent) had (F(1)=0.06, p=.80). Finally, the interaction
received only one kind of guidance. The between all three variables (requirement of
guidance types received are displayed in having a psychology degree, job mismatch
Table 4. and career guidance) on efficacy was not
Of those who had received guidance, significant: F(1)=0.77, p=.38.
eight said it was neither from the university Simple main effects analysis showed that
or the specific psychology department, 76 those who pursued a career where the
from one of those two, and 16 from both. requirement is to have a psychology degree
Departmental guidance was received by 64 had significantly higher career decision
participants, and university guidance by 44. making efficacy levels (F(1)=4.04, p=.045).
Of those receiving guidance, the number of Similarly, those with no mismatch in career
hours they received in the academic year of aspiration showed significantly higher effi-
2010/11 was: M=8.64 (N=100), SD=14.04, cacy levels (F(1)=24.85, p<.001) and those
with a range of 100. who had received career guidance also
scored significantly higher in efficacy
Self-efficacy (F(1)=6.07, p=.01) (see Table 6).
Self-efficacy score was not significantly differ-
ent across degree levels (BA, MA, PhD) the Discussion
participants were currently enrolled on This study investigated the career aspirations
(F(20)=1.02, p=.44) and, therefore, partici- of psychology students and their career self-
pants of all degrees are included in the efficacy. Higher career self-efficacy was asso-
analysis regarding self-efficacy. To test possi- ciated with receiving career counselling.
ble interaction between variables, a factorial This concords with the findings of Fouad et
ANOVA using type II sums of squares was al. (2009) as well as those of Reese and Miller
conducted. The results showed no signifi- (2006) who showed that career counselling
cant interaction between the requirement of helped students to feel more confident in
having a psychology degree and job making better decisions when entering in
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 53
Simon Knight & Maris Vainre
Table 4: Guidance types received.
Guidance type Received Not received
One to one guidance 26 74
Careers Seminars 43 57
Informal Peer Guidance 61 39
Formal Peer Guidance 24 76
Guidance from a professional organisation (e.g. BPS) 24 76
Other 15 85
Note: Raw figures from that group (N=100) are shown.
Table 5: Factorial ANOVA for the effect of Psychology Required, presence of
Job Mismatch, and Guidance Received on Self-Efficacy score.
Source Type II df Mean F Sig.
Sum of Square
Squares
Psychology Required 0.94 1 .94 4.04 .045
Job Mismatch 5.77 1 5.77 24.85 .000
Guidance Received 1.41 1 1.41 6.07 .01
Psychology Required * Job Mismatch 0.07 1 .07 0.30 .59
Psychology Required * Guidance Received 0.20 1 .20 0.89 .36
Job Mismatch * Guidance Received 0.02 1 .02 0.06 .80
Psychology Required * Job Mismatch
0.18 1 .18 0.77 .38
* Guidance Received
Note:Dependent Variable: Efficacy Total
a. R2=.132 (Adjusted R2=.110)
Table 6: Means and Standard Deviations of Self-Efficacy scores for: those intending to
enter a degree requiring, or not requiring; those with a job match and mismatch;
and those who have or have not received Careers Guidance.
Mean SD Total N
Psychology Required No 3.52 0.59 29
Yes 3.77 0.50 255
Job Mismatch Match 3.86 0.46 173
Mismatch 3.55 0.53 111
Guidance Received No 3.68 0.52 184
Yes 3.86 0.47 100
54 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2
Career aspirations and self-efficacy of European psychology students
the job market. The results of the current to gain careers guidance. This relationship
study also indicate that higher self-efficacy is might interact with degree title – particularly
related to the wish to work in the field of the those which are more vocational, and qualifi-
degree and believing in finding a job in the cation level, although unfortunately partici-
area of one’s interest. pant numbers across degree titles are too low
Higher self-efficacy is also related to wish- to allow such analysis. As made clear in
ing to pursue a career for which a psychology Figure 1, it is particularly interesting that the
degree is a requirement. While this result is two most ‘likely’ areas – research and health
unsurprising – and confirms our ‘2b’ – are not only the most ‘desired’ job for a
hypothesis – it is notable that 89.8per centof number of people with a mismatch, but are
our participants reported this requirement. also the most probable while not being most
This suggests a rather large number of desired for others. That is, a proportion think
participants wish to pursue careers which are they will enter those areas while not desiring
at least somewhat related to their degree to do so, and a similar proportion who would
subject. It is beyond the scope of this work to wish to enter these areas, think it improbable
analyse what roles these jobs may include, that they will.
but understanding the jobs psychology grad- HEIs could thus explore module options
uates obtain in various sectors is of interest to prepare students for competitive positions
for future research. Of further interest is and give an overview of what is needed to
developing an understanding of why some pursue a career in different fields of psychol-
participants do not wish to enter a profession ogy. In addition, students should be
for which psychology is required – 10.2 per informed about where to obtain necessary
cent of our participants – and how their further training, should it be required in
career path relates to their lower self-efficacy. some fields. In addition, sound advice at the
It is possible that this is an artefact of the degree choice stage would perhaps allay
measure, that those who are less sure about some of the concern here and ensure that
their degree options are less likely to have students are on the correct degree. Research
thought about how their particular skills set into other degree subjects, the CDSE and
– in psychology – matches up to their desired job-mismatch, may give some indication of
job. Conversely, it may be that many partici- whether there is a wider concern for HEIs.
pants interpreted the question as asking At the same time, employers, and subject
whether they would use their psychology advocates including in psychology could
degree in their career paths, and that this better advertise career options and offer
process is related to higher self-efficacy. internships where necessary so that a
Finally, the high percentage here may reflect psychology graduate would have more confi-
the nature of the sample – a self-selected dence in being able to start working in the
group, likely to be more involved in their field they desire. Of course, this should be
psychology faculties. considered in light of debates regarding the
The large proportion of students claim- purpose of education, and risks of marketi-
ing a mismatch between their desired and sation of higher education at the cost of ‘love
probable job (39.1 per cent) may be of of subject’.
concern, and should perhaps be investigated We should perhaps also be concerned
in light of careers-preparation and awareness. that 64.8 per cent of respondents claimed
This is true at all qualification levels they had received no careers guidance.
(although numbers for PhD and ‘other’ are Whilst we may wish to be cautious regarding
too low to generalise), which is particularly this type of self-report response, student
concerning given those studying higher perception of the guidance they have
degrees may be aiming at particular jobs, and received is likely to be important for their
will have had longer periods of study in which self-efficacy regarding careers. Thus,
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 55
Simon Knight & Maris Vainre
whether students have not received guid- Practical implications and future research
ance, or they have received guidance which Future research should focus on assessment
has ‘passed them by’ without notice, they are methods used and self-efficacy – in particu-
likely to have lower self-efficacy. Therefore, lar, traditional versus ‘authentic’ or ‘real’
failing to separate these groups in analysis assessment (Newstead & Makinen, 1997),
may not be a major concern. While no doubt and an ‘authentic learning environment’
it is worth asking whether students actually which encourages one to make one’s own
value such guidance, given this lower self- decisions, whilst respecting the welfare of
efficacy a better focus might perhaps be on others (responsible autonomy) (Trapp,
how to provide guidance that they do value, 2008). Moreover, there is evidence that there
and ensure that participation rates for such might be cultural differences in self-efficacy
guidance are high. (Mau, 2000). In light of the creation of a
pan-European Europsy diploma based on
Limitations common curricula, it is necessary to investi-
Given the sample utilised in this study, the gate to which extent students in different
results cannot be generalised to reflect the countries feel they obtain enough skills and
total of approximately 300,000 European knowledge to pursue a professional career
psychology students. Similarly, the relatively related to their degree. Furthermore, this
small number of students makes it difficult also suggests universities could consider
to analyse cross-cultural differences from this further investigating local students’ career
study. Furthermore, as the sample was interests to better prepare them for the
recruited online, it could mean a pre-selec- future careers which psychology students
tion of the respondents. In particular, as wish to pursue.
participants were largely aware of EFPSA
prior to the study, the results may not be Acknowledgements
representative of the European psychology We are grateful to the European Federation
students. However, the implications for of Psychology Students Associations (EFPSA)
psychology curricula are important, both in for the assistance received in recruiting
terms of careers guidance offered and the participants, and to various active members
requirement to have a psychology degree on of EFPSA for some useful pointers at several
entering a postgraduate job. stages of the research. We would also like to
thank the two anonymous reviewers whose
comments significantly improved the quality
of this paper.
Correspondence
Simon Knight
Email: [email protected]
56 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2