ERIC EJ959021: Psychology in Spain: Its Historical and Cultural Roots, Instruction, Research and Future Prospects

2011·0.26 MB·English

by  ERIC

Psychology in Spain: Its historical and
cultural roots, instruction, research and
future prospects
Beatriz Montes-Berges, María Aranda &
Maria del Rosario Castillo-Mayén
Roots in Spanish Psychology dated back to Huarte de San Juan (1575). From this period to nowadays,
Psychology has notably developed, branching in different areas such as psychology and sports and physical
exercise, clinical and health psychology, educational psychology, psychology of social intervention, legal
psychology, work and organisational psychology, and psychology of road safety. This paper includes a review
of psychology students, students and population’s image about psychology, psychology study plan and profile
in Spanish universities, and functions of Spanish practitioners. Finally, the future of psychology in Spain
is dealt, focusing on the necessary improvements to its advance.
Keywords: Psychology; Spain; universities; applications of psychology;study plan; Spanish practitioners.
T
HE SEEDS of psychology in Spain can to appear at the end of the 19th century and the
be found in the 16th century (Spanish early 20th century.’
Renaissance) in the work of Huarte de Since the figure of Huarte de San Juan,
San Juan (1529–1588). A medical doctor by there have been many who have made their
training, he became known as the forerun- contributions to constructing and consoli-
ner of modern psychology due to his work dating psychology in Spain2(Siguán, 1976).
translated into English as The Examination of We must look back to the first half of the
Men’s Wits1. Huarte was the first modern 19th century in order to observe a true,
writer to base psychology on physiology and growing interest in psychology in Spain
biology (moving away from the prevailing (150 Años de la Psicología Española, Carpin-
conservative philosophical and spiritual tero, 2004). Despite a persisting philosophi-
conceptions). He is also considered the fore- cal bent, psychology in this period was
runner of Developmental and Educational becoming more established largely due to
Psychology, paying attention to the type of the Pidal Plan (1845), which decreed the
‘wits’ possessed by each individual and the compulsory teaching of ‘Principles of Psychol-
types common to each age range (Velarde ogy, Ideology and Logic’ at secondary schools.
Lombraña, 1993). The Pidal Plan resulted in the first appear-
However, this beginning of formal ance of psychology teaching manuals, while
psychological thought was soon to be psychology at the university level continued
stunted by the arrival of the Inquisition. As to be a part of the academic subject of Meta-
Carpintero (1989) observes, ‘a long road physics (García Vega, Moya Santoyo &
ensued from these precedents in the Renaissance Rodríguez Domínguez, 1992). Although the
era until the first manifestations of a new tradi- role of psychology in this era was beginning
tion, what is now scientific psychology, that began to be valued, it was yet to become institu-
1 Examen de Ingenios para las ciencias(1575).
2 For more information on the most significant authors in the history of Spanish psychology and their
contributions, see Ciento Cincuenta Años de la Psicología Española, available at http://psi.usal.es/instrumentos-de-
la-psicologia/textos/04.pdf (last accessed 5 July 2010).
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No 2 3
© The British Psychological Society 2011
Beatriz Montes-Berges, María Aranda & Maria del Rosario Castillo-Mayén
tionalised, and a defined social role was still scientific society in this sphere, the Sociedad
lacking, as was a precise placement within Española de Psicología(1952). All this created
the Spanish academic panorama. A profes- the conditions for a new consolidation of the
sional role was yet to appear in a later period research, instruction and professional activ-
(1915–1936). ity of Spanish psychologists (Peiró, 1984;
This inter-war period from 1915 to 1936 Encinas & Rosa, 1990).
was marked by intense scientific activity, and Within this context, psychology went on
produced significant progress toward the to become a part of official university curric-
construction of applied, professional, clearly ula: first as a ‘Section’ (1968) in the Faculties
defined psychology (what is referred to as of Philosophy and Letters, and later on as a
Psychotechnia) through implementing this ‘Faculty’ (1980) at the Complutense Univer-
knowledge primarily in the fields of voca- sity of Madrid and Central University in
tional guidance and pedagogy (Zazzo, Barcelona. These were followed by the
1978). During this period the first institu- Autonoma University of Madrid, the
tions of applied psychology appeared in National University of Distance Education
Spain – the pioneers in using psychological (UNED), and the University of Valencia
methods and instruments (Sánchez Vazquez (1983). In 1989 a Faculty of Psychology was
& Guijarro Granados, 2000): launched at the Autonoma University of
(a)Secretariat of Learning(1915). This was the Barcelona and in 1991 at the Universities of
first Vocational Guidance Service. Its La Laguna, Oviedo, País Vasco, Salamanca
objective was to orient young workers and Santiago. This institutional process has
toward their choice of a profession, by not yet concluded, since there are still
looking at each person’s aptitudes and sections of psychology at other Universities
preferences. that aspire to become Faculties (Quintana,
(b)Institute on Vocational Guidance (1918). 1991).
Emerged as an expansion of the former, Psychology flourished in Spain during
which was flooded by user demand. the last two decades of the 20th century, as
(c)Psychology-pedagogy Laboratory (1925). demonstrated by the publication of nearly
Created for the purpose of assessing 30 specialised journals, the functioning of a
students scientifically, not only their significant number of associations related to
scholastic performance, but also all their psychology, and the birth of the Colegio
physiological and psychological aspects Oficial de Psicólogos de España, COP [Official
(Kirchner, 1979). Association of Psychologists of Spain]
The next key period for modern psychology (1980). These facts have consolidated
in Spain took place after the Spanish Civil psychology as a science undergoing continu-
War (1936–1939) (Quintana, 1991). Its mile- ous growth and development in our country.
stones include the first Spanish journal of
psychology, Psicotecnia (1939–1945), later The present situation of psychology
replaced by the Revista de Psicología General y in Spain
Aplicada (1946) (González Pérez, 2006); Professional psychology in Spain has under-
notable progress in centres of applied gone extensive development since psychol-
psychology that were launched in earlier ogy studies were established at Spanish
years (1915, 1918 and 1925); the creation of universities in the 1970s. Psychology practi-
the Department of Experimental Psychology tioners in Spain today are dedicated prima-
in the CSIC (Consejo Superior de Investiga- rily to the following professional fields and
ciones Científicas) in 1943, where an impor- roles: the Psychology of Sports and Physical
tant movement was established to promote Exercise, Clinical and Health Psychology,
psychology as an experimental science Educational Psychology, the Psychology of
(Siguán, 2009); and the creation of the first Social Intervention, Legal Psychology, Work
4 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2
Psychology in Spain
Figure 1: Professional profiles and sectors of practice.
Distribution by specialty (%) Public Sector Private Sector
(%) (%)
Clinical 68.36 80 20
Educational 15.29 75 25
Work and Organisational 8.05 58 42
Social and Community 4.40 42 58
Road Safety 1.63 6 94
Legal 1.15 73 27
Teaching and Research
0.51 97 3
at University
Sports 0.35 43 57
Military 0.25 33 67
Source: Santolaya, Berdullas & Fernández-Hermida (2002).
and Organisational Psychology, and Road Clinical and Health Psychology
Safety Psychology (COP, 1998). Figure 1 Clinical and Health Psychology in our coun-
shows the distribution among the different try has found its traditional sphere of appli-
sectors in the public and private spheres. cation in private practice, due in part to
Figure 2 displays several aspects about each inadequate development of psychological
of these professional spheres and how one care within our public health system.
gains entrance to them. Presently, the private sector of Clinical and
Health Psychology is dynamic and diverse,
Psychology of Sports and and is found in practices that range from a
Physical Exercise single practitioner to complex centres with
This is a relatively young area, but widely broad-ranging multi-professional teams.
recognised in our country. Its main object of In the public sphere, recent years have
study is behaviour in the area of physical seen the gradual incorporation of clinical
exercise and sports, and it is practiced in and health psychologists (thanks to General
different specialised areas such as athletic Health Act 14/ 1986, 25 April). In order to
performance (professional or high perform- work in the public sector one must obtain
ance), sports for beginners (school, univer- the Specialised Degree in Clinical Psychology,
sity or community sports), and sports for extended by the Spanish government.
leisure and health (sports for everyone, and According to current Spanish legislation
adaptations for special needs populations). regarding health professionals, the Appoint-
The function of a sports psychologist ment of Health Professionals Act 44/2003, only
begins with a psychological/sports assess- psychologists specialised in Clinical Psychol-
ment that is adapted to the areas of practice ogy are recognised and authorised for the
described above. This is followed by plan- health care tasks of screening, diagnosis,
ning and programming the intervention and treatment and rehabilitation of mental and
continues with an assessment or monitoring behavioural disorders of patients. The
of the work being carried out. These func- degree mentioned can be obtained through
tions can be complemented by other func- the PIR channel (Resident Intern Psycholo-
tions related to education, training or gists) and through the official accreditation
research (COP, 1998). channel (COP, 2010).
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 5
Beatriz Montes-Berges, María Aranda & Maria del Rosario Castillo-Mayén
Figure 2: Entrance to each of the professional profiles.
6 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2
Psychology in Spain
The PIR is a system of postgraduate train- In the public sphere, psychologists may
ing, with a four-year duration, designed and work as school guidance counselors (since
developed jointly with the Ministries of 1977 when the Ministry of Education created
Health and Education. It is eminently practi- the first Scholastic and Vocational Guidance
cal training, but complemented by theoreti- Services) (Fernández Barroso, 1998). Ever
cal training, and is carried on within the since the LOGSE came into effect (Educa-
framework of Public Services. It was first put tional Reform Act, 1990), the education
into place in certain Autonomous Regions in administration has been refining its model
1983, and at the state level in 1994; since for school psychology intervention and
then, new enrollments are received on an educational guidance, at two levels of profes-
annual basis. Admission is granted through a sional practice: (1) the Guidance Depart-
competitive exam, open to anyone with a ments at each secondary school, acting as
psychology degree. specialised support to mainstream teaching
Regarding the official accreditation and a resource for vocational guidance at the
channel, practitioners who wish to take school, serving the school itself, the pupils,
advantage of this option must possess teachers, families and other institutions; and
specialised training in clinical and health (2) the district-wide Orientation Teams that
psychology, as shown in Figure 2. serve primary schools, offering specialised
There are a number of different settings assistance and support, whether didactic,
where intervention takes place, geared psychological, social or organisational, in
toward the specific needs of the situation. addition to functions specific to the district
These include hospitals and specialised level. There are also province-wide Specific
units, schools, volunteer organisations and Teams (specialists in the treatment of
NGOs, clinical psychology teams in the mili- autism, deafness, blindness or lack of motor
tary, and so on. skills) and Early Care Teams (that address
The functions of the clinical and health the pre-school level).
practitioner are varied. However, they can be In order to cover the openings for practi-
grouped into categories such as screening, tioners in the secondary Guidance Depart-
diagnosis, treatment and intervention, coun- ments and in the Orientation Teams, an
sel, advising, consultation and referral, educational specialisation in Psychology and
health promotion and prevention, research, Pedagogy was created at the state level in
teaching and supervision, management, and 1991 (although Autonomous Regions with
administration. their own educational authority have the
prerogative to establish the number of open-
Educational Psychology ings). Since then, openings for these posi-
Educational Psychology is applied mainly tions are designated on a recurring basis by
within the framework of social systems of the state and by Autonomous Regions
education at all levels and in all modalities: (Fernández Barroso, 1998).
state-regulated and private systems, formal
and informal settings, and throughout life- Psychology of Social Intervention
long learning (COP, 1998). The fundamental objective of this field is to
The functions of practitioners in this reduce or prevent social and personal risk
sphere include: interventions that address situations. This can be accomplished
students’ educational needs, vocational and through direct intervention in specific prob-
professional guidance, prevention and inter- lems that affect persons, groups or commu-
vention for improving the educational nities – offering them material or
process, family training and advising, socio- professional resources – or through promot-
educational intervention, research and ing a better quality of life. The functions
teaching. performed are direct care, advising and
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 7
Beatriz Montes-Berges, María Aranda & Maria del Rosario Castillo-Mayén
consulting, community involvement, Legal Psychology encompasses the study,
research, planning and programmes, explanation, promotion, assessment preven-
programme assessment, management, tion, advising and/or treatment of those
administration and training. psychological phenomena that influence a
Spheres of practice include the commu- person’s legal behaviour. It uses the methods
nity, family and childhood intervention of scientific psychology and applies them to
(family intervention and foster care, adop- different spheres: psychology applied to the
tions, residential care), senior citizens, courts, penitentiary psychology, psychology
disabilities, women, youth, social minorities of delinquency, judicial psychology (testi-
and immigrants, co-operation for develop- mony, swearing), police and armed forces
ment and environmental psychology. Other psychology, victimology and mediation.
new thrusts are sectors of intervention Given the complexity of the work carried
related to occupying free time and to the out by the legal psychologist, the COP has
media (COP, 1998). established that Legal Psychology requires
Training in social intervention has specialised training. In order to practice as a
suffered from significant deficiencies until legal psychologist one must have a psychol-
quite recently, in terms of the university ogy degree and be licensed by the COP. In
degree programme. Very few faculties addition, the COP stipulates three non-
included the option to specialise in this area. exclusive channels by which one can gain
New study plans developed in the 1990s have access to this specialty. The first is to have
been correcting this situation. In addition to completed COP-recognised coursework at
the learning gained through university stud- accredited public or private institutions,
ies, social intervention requires additional universities or other official centres. The
specific learning, which amounts to a kind of second is to accredit practical work in Legal
second specialisation. Thus we can speak of Psychology done under the supervision of
non-specific content (common to all sectors organisations or persons recognised for this
of intervention) and specific content purpose, and the third is to have accredited
(specific to each sector) (COP, 1998). The one’s professional experience in the area
following aspects for the training of profes- (Urra Portillo & Romero Rodríguez, 2006).
sionals must be documented and accredited Depending on the area of specialisation,
by the COP: a programme of specific content must be
1. Knowledge of the legislative, adminis- studied, in addition to interrelated content
trative and organisational framework with from other areas. In the case of Family
its main programmes and services. Psychology, for example, one studies Family
2. Psychosocial characteristics of the sectors Law or Protection of Minors. In Penitentiary
addressed by such intervention. Psychology, studies include the context of
3. The most typical strategies and tech- the prison system, the psychological effects
niques for intervention with individuals, of imprisonment and Penitentiary Law.
groups and communities. Other peripheral knowledge is also
4. Theoretical models of social inter-vention. required, including General Principles of
5. Methodology: planning, needs assess- Law, jurisdictional orders, basic concepts of
ment, programme assessment. Civil, Penal, and Trial Law, and complemen-
tary concepts from Penitentiary Law, Canon
Legal Psychology Law, Labour Law and Laws pertaining to
Legal Psychology as a specialty is pursued in Minors (Urra Portillo & Romero Rodríguez,
a sphere that straddles the worlds of Law and 2006).
of Psychology, either in the theoretical,
explanatory and research thrust, or in appli-
cation, assessment and treatment.
8 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2
Psychology in Spain
Work and Organisational Psychology ● Human resources management
Work and Organisational Psychology is one Techniques for analysing and preparing job
of the large areas of psychology in Spain. descriptions
Given the breadth of functions and spheres ● Personnel selection
involved, it is necessary to group them into Personnel screening
large areas such as commercial research and ● Assessment testing
marketing, management and administration Vocational and professional counsel and
of organisations, human resource develop- guidance
ment and organisation, and work and ● Labour law
health-related conditions. Qualitative and quantitative market analysis
Commercial research includes conduct- techniques
ing market studies, product research and ● Hiring, economics
advertising. Work is usually carried on in Quality and quality certification
private enterprises large enough to have ● Knowledge of organisations
these kinds of services. Management and Economic Psychology (Marketing and
administration, whether of the enterprise or Communication).
of its human resources, involves activities ● Statistics
related to advising, analysis of communica- Clinical Psychology for business
tions, rating job positions, qualitative ● Business administration
improvement in human resources, etc. Techniques for managing, leading, and
Finally, regarding work and health-related co-ordinating work teams
conditions, the psychologist’s function ● Ergonomics
focuses on preventing incidents and on Techniques for Hygiene and Prevention of
direct intervention with persons: the essence Occupational Hazards
is to analyse and intervene in all processes ● Labour-related health and safety
occurring within the organisation, from the
organisation outward, and from individuals Psychology of Road Safety
in their connection with the organisation At the present time, one of the characteristic
(COP, 1998). activities of psychologists working in this
These functions may be performed for field is driver examination, carried out in
either public or private organisations. A private assessment centres; another area of
psychology degree is required in order to work has to do with assessing fitness to carry
practice as a work and organisational arms.
psychologist (in either the public or private However, the road safety psychologist is
sector). Current curricula include ‘Organisa- not limited to these activities, but has a broad
tional Psychology’ as a core subject, and field of action due to the growing emphasis
many universities include ‘The Psychology of on the ‘human factor’ in the vehicle-road-traffic
Work’ as a required course (Beléndez, triad, where humans are considered to be
2002). In addition to this general criterion, a one of the most important elements in
body of more specific knowledge is needed, preventing accidents. Within this area of
such as: human resource management, practice, professional functions include
personnel selection, testing to assess atti- designing strategies for relating to
tudes, motivation and personality, Labour ‘machines’, creating simulation environ-
Law, hiring, economics, didactic methodol- ments, and designing strategies relative to
ogy, organisational knowledge, statistics, traffic rules and regulations, as well as
business management, ergonomics, on-the- frequent collaboration with other profession-
job health and safety (COP, 1998). als, for example, for childhood road safety
education, prevention campaigns, criteria
unification, and so on (Martínez, 1995).
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 9
Beatriz Montes-Berges, María Aranda & Maria del Rosario Castillo-Mayén
In order to be accredited as a Road Safety mostly young professional: 22.5 per cent are
Psychologist, one’s psychology degree must less than 30 years of age, and 30 per cent are
have included a specific subject on Road over 40 (Fernández Hermida et al., 2000).
Safety Psychology, otherwise the course must
be taken later, either at university or at any Specialties and theoretical orientation
other officially recognised institution (4.5 The primary theoretical orientation in our
minimum credits). This basic training must country in the year 2000 was the cognitive-
be complemented by other auxiliary knowl- behavioural model, followed by models taken
edge such as: anatomical-structural, physio- from psychoanalysis and systemic orienta-
logical and biomechanical foundations of tion. The remainder had very minor repre-
transportation and road safety, the theory of sentation (Fernández Hermida et al., 2000).
training and functional analysis of trans- These figures, as well as their distribution by
portation and road safety, and the organisa- specialty, can be observed in Table 2.
tion and structure of transportation and In a more recent study (Santolaya
road safety. When one’s preparation is to be Ochando, Berdullas Temes & Fernández
applied to populations with special needs, Hermida, 2002) with over 7000 licensed
specific content must also be included from psychologists, a 68.36 per cent majority
fields such as disabilities, senior citizens, claimed to work in Clinical Psychology, far
disadvantaged sectors, and so on (Nicolás greater than the next most frequent occupa-
Martínez, 1995). tion, Educational Psychology, at 12.28 per
cent. This study also showed that the theo-
Psychology in Spain: by the numbers retical orientation most representative of
Gender psychologists from the different specialties
The psychology profession in our country is was the cognitive-behavioural approach, with
primarily female: 72.58 per cent of licensed a 49.08 per cent preference.
professionals are women, and only 27.42 per
cent are men. Distribution of this variable in Psychology at the universities
the different specialties is not uniform, with Of the 66 universities offering face-to-face
certain observable peculiarities in the learning in 2003–2004 (Guía de Universi-
spheres of Work and Organisational Psychol- dades y Carreras, 2003), 44per centoffered
ogy, academic areas, Sports Psychology and studies in psychology, as well as the two
areas related to the military (Fernández distance universities, UNED (public) and
Hermida et al., 2000) (Table 1). These UOC (private). If we differentiate between
results will be explained in more detail in a public and private, there is a greater offering
later section on the social and political value at the public universities: 47 per cent of the
of psychology in Spain. 47 face-to-face, public universities offer stud-
These data are consistent with the fact ies in psychology (22 universities), as
that the percentage of the male professionals compared to 37 per cent of the 19 private
is greater than the percentage of females in universities (seven universities). In summary,
these work sectors (university professors, a total of 31 universities (29 face-to-face and
sports, defence and police work). This differ- two distance learning) offer studies in
ence seems to persist despite the female psychology leading to the official degree
predominance in professional psychology. (Hernández Gordillo, 2003).
Studying psychology is very popular. With
Age 57,000 students in the 2002–2003 academic
The mean age of licensed professionals in year, it occupies third place in a ranking of
the year 2000 was 36.51 years, with a stan- degree programmes, surpassed only by Law
dard deviation of 8.14, a minimum of 22 and and a grouping of all business and econom-
a maximum of 68. These results reveal a ics degrees. It has undergone gradual
10 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2
Psychology in Spain
Table 1: Distribution be gender in each specialty.
Specialty Male Female
Clinical 30% 70%
Educational 27% 73%
Work and Organisational 44% 56%
Social and Community 32% 68%
Road Safety 18% 82%
Legal 32% 68%
Teaching and research at university 58% 42%
Sports 52% 48%
Military 63% 38%
Source: Fernández Hermida, Berdullas Temes, Santolaya Ochando & Muñiz (2000).
Table 2: Distribution (in percentages) by field and by theoretical orientation.
CBM BM E PP SO HP OP TA GT PEM
Clinical 48.00 14.29 9.69 12.17 5.34 4.35 5.15 0.58 0.24 0.19
Educational 53.92 12.66 20.63 3.54 4.05 3.92 0.89 0.51 0.13 0.25
Work and Organisational 48.28 14.37 25.00 2.59 4.60 4.89 0.29 1.44
Social and Community 51.18 9.84 16.14 2.76 16.14 2.36 1.18 0.39 0.39
Road Safety 50.00 13.39 29.17 2.78 2.78 1.39
Legal 44.26 13.11 24.59 6.56 6.56 3.28 1.64
Sports 70.59 17.65 11.76
Military 60.00 6.67 26.67 6.67 6.67
Legend: CBM=Cognitive Behavioural Models; BM=Behaviour Modification, E=Eclectic; PP=Psychoanalysis-inspired
Psychology; SO=Systemic Orientation; HP=Humanist-inspired Psychology; OP=Orthodox Psychoanalysis;
TA=Transactional Analysis; GT=Gestalt Therapy; PEM=Phenomenological-Existential Models.
Source: Fernández Hermida, Berdullas Temes, Santolaya Ochando & Muñiz (2000).
growth, reaching its maximum during The social and political value of
1999–2000, with a slightly downward trend psychology in Spain
since that time (Hernández Gordillo, 2003). As we have seen in earlier sections, profes-
A later section, Profile of psychology sional psychology in Spain has experienced a
students in Spain, will address the likelihood large increase in the number of practitioners
of students with a psychology degree obtain- in recent years and in the variety of areas of
ing employment as psychologists (or other intervention. The increasingly female and
types of work). diversified nature of the profession are
unquestionable facts. Some fields of work
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 11
Beatriz Montes-Berges, María Aranda & Maria del Rosario Castillo-Mayén
continue to be predominant, namely the make up the Guidance Departments in
field of clinical psychology, followed by secondary schools and the Orientation
educational psychology and the psychology Teams that serve primary schools.)
of work and organisations. Other fields are In another study (Sierra et al., 2005),
becoming established (road safety, sports, psychology students placed their discipline
etc.) with the subsequent demand for within the health sector; 98.90 per cent of
specialised professionals with specific train- those surveyed stated that psychologists can
ing profiles. help prevent health problems, and 95 per
However, although this development is cent indicated that one of the core aspects of
positive, it also has a series of consequences psychology is to encourage healthy behav-
on society’s image of psychology: the rapid iours. Another important finding was that
opening of professional spheres can most students perceived psychology as a
produce a confused perception of what health care discipline, although independ-
psychology can contribute within these new ent of more established disciplines such as
fields of work. In some cases this expansion Psychiatry. Nonetheless, even though most
gives rise to professional practice without students consider psychology as a health care
proper qualifications, when new professional discipline, they do not feel that all psycholo-
spaces are approached by other recently gists are prepared to diagnose and treat
created professions in search of their own emotional and mental problems.
identity and when various areas of profes-
sional intervention are not clearly differenti- Psychology practitioners
ated – producing conflict among the In general, licensed psychologists hold a
different specialties of psychology itself. rather favourable opinion of psychology as a
Added to this is the inadequate postgraduate health care discipline; they consider that
training for the emerging professional needs there is much affinity between the disci-
of psychologists (Buela Casal, 2004). plines of psychology and medicine, espe-
cially in the case of Clinical Psychology
University students (Buela Casal et al., 2005).
According to a study by García et al. (2004),
university students, whether enrolled in The general population
psychology or in other degree programmes, Among the early studies of the image of
were unable to show a congruent, systematic psychology in the general population, the
idea of the image and value of psychology. work by Seisdedos (1983) stands out due to
Most students from other degree its sample size. Results indicated that, gener-
programmes thought of psychology as a ally speaking, the population surveyed
human science, but did not know exactly considered psychology to be useful,
what its object of study was, though they although this consideration diminished in
considered it closely related to Psychiatry older respondents and respondents with a
and Pedagogy. In addition, they rated lower professional and cultural level. In addi-
psychology as having a low level of scien- tion, women were found to have a more
tificity, they assigned its scope of work to favourable attitude toward psychology than
education and mental health, and identified men. However, this study also found that a
psychoanalysis with psychology. Finally, there positive opinion of the usefulness of psychol-
seemed to be a noteworthy conflict of inter- ogy had some association with a belief in
ests in the answers given by Pedagogy occult sciences.
students, who consider it something of an In a later study, Berenguer and Quin-
interference that psychologists are able to tanilla (1994) found that, although knowl-
work in primary education. (Recall that edge of psychology and of psychologists was
since 1991 both psychologists and teachers generally adequate, there was a certain igno-
12 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2