ERIC EJ955548: Preservice Teachers as Change Agents: Going the Extra Mile in Service-Learning Experiences

2011·0.08 MB·English

by  ERIC

Preservice Teachers as Change Agents 3

Preservice Teachers as Change Agents: Going the Extra Mile in Service-Learning
Experiences

Carol A. Marchel & Carol Shields, Winthrop University
Linda Winter, Marshall University

Educational psychologists involved in teacher education are expected to develop professional
teacher dispositions of preservice students. The professional disposition “teacher as change
agent” is used to frame actions in service-learning field experiences in a teacher preparation
program. Preservice teacher service-learning journals, self-ratings, participant observations,
and mentor teacher reports were used to understand service-learning design elements associated
with preservice teacher dispositions as change agents. Frequent service visits extended over
time, opportunities to develop relationships at sites, and perceiving that one makes a difference
with preschool through high school (P–12) learners were linked to desirable disposition
outcomes. Further suggestions for course design elements include (a) providing activities to help
preservice teachers understand field contexts, (b) supporting a good match between preservice
teachers and learner needs, and (c) making the characteristics and role of change agents part of
the preparation and evaluation process.

We are educational psychologists strongly to broad teacher preparation efforts
engaged in teacher preparation. We use that inevitably include work with teacher
service-learning experiences to support our dispositions.
students’ understanding of the development
of diverse learners. At the same time, we Service-Learning Pedagogy
share with all those who prepare teachers a Service learning is a pedagogy
concern for the development of the whose time has come in teacher preparation.
necessary dispositions for teaching in Three current forces support this claim.
diverse schools. This last concern prompted 1. Teacher preparation is clearly
us to examine how best to support the headed in the direction of increased, earlier,
development of candidate dispositions and more integrated field experiences
through our use of service learning. Service (National Council for the Accreditation of
learning is not only a vehicle for teaching Teacher Education [NCATE], 2010;
the content of educational psychology but National Network for Educational Renewal
also for supporting teacher candidate [NNER], 2010).
dispositions that all students can learn. It is 2. Teacher preparation must address
imperative that educational psychologists professional dispositions—the beliefs and
teach both content and dispositions, actions that all students can learn, regardless
especially now when teacher preparation of economic, language, racial, ethnic, or
institutions are under increased scrutiny for ability background (see, e.g., Jensen, 2009).
their ability to prepare teachers able to teach 3. Service-learning pedagogy
diverse students (Engel, 2009). Service combines both the drive toward increased
learning links educational psychology field experiences and the design elements
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for addressing the dispositions necessary for guidelines for service-learning design in
teachers. teacher preparation.
It is no wonder that service learning
is rapidly becoming a common component Dispositions and Service Learning
of teacher preparation (Etheridge, 2006). The Language of Teacher Dispositions
The use of service learning is far Because service-learning experiences
from a guarantee that students will come are often linked in the literature to
away from the experience with fully dispositions necessary for effective teaching
developed dispositions for equitable of all students (Butcher et al., 2003), it is
teaching. Unless carefully orchestrated, necessary to briefly explore the language of
experiences can result in unintended teacher dispositions to more clearly position
interpretations (Jones, 2002). During her our work.
service-learning experiences, for example, The professional dispositions of
one of our preservice teachers stated, “I teachers have in the past been linked to the
learned that some parents of these kids just term “social justice” (see, e.g., Ayers,
don’t see the bigger picture in the education Quinn, & Stovall, 2009a. Social justice is,
of their children.” Like her, many preservice thus, a concept widely discussed in teacher
teachers are, in fact, unaware of the realities preparation. The term has more recently
faced by students and families from become generic: a catch-phrase that runs the
underrepresented groups (Westheimer & risk of becoming cliché (North, 2008). Some
suurtamm,1 2009). It is necessary to clarity in defining the concept exists. In the
challenge and transform existing belief preface to their book, The Handbook of
structures about diverse learners through Social Justice in Education, Ayers et al.
careful design of experiences (Klug, (2009b) provided a useful articulation of the
Luckey, Wilkins, & Whitfield, 2006; components of social justice teaching:
Maxwell, 2009). In short, service-learning 1) providing an equitable education
field experiences have great potential but to all learners; 2) instilling learners with a
require careful design to impact professional sense of agency that will encourage them to
teaching dispositions. become change agents; and 3) promoting
Our article examines service- social literacy so learners understand the
learning design elements most likely to way complex issues influence the quality of
achieve desirable disposition outcomes. We daily life. (Preface, p. xiv)
begin with a brief discussion of the current Most recently, NCATE has
language of teacher dispositions to clarify abandoned the use of “social justice,”
our focus. We then describe how we used instead preferring the concepts of fairness
data from our own courses to identify and belief that all students can learn
features of the course most likely to achieve (NCATE, 2007). Others too, rather than
the desired outcomes. Finally, we provide discussing social justice, instead focus on
the role of education in preparing all
students to participate as citizens in a
democracy (Cochran-Smith, 2004). Still
1Name not capitalized at the author’s request others note teachers must become change

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agents, a notion that underpins all other aims aspects of these various definitions of the
of teaching (Nieto, 2003). Building on the teacher as change agent role.
change agent theme, Rogers (2006) Less commonly found in the
described early efforts at the preparation of literature is a consistent definition of a
teachers for their role as change agents, change agent. Perhaps most useful is the
describing the shift in thinking and personal definition from Lu and Ortlieb
transformation of teachers necessary for (2009):change agents are innovators who
teaching for social justice. initiate the change, schedule the change,
The role of teachers as change agents create the climate for change, find the
seems to us to embrace both historical support for change and the resistance to
concepts linked to social justice and to the change, involve the people who support
disposition shifts necessary for teaching so change, convince the people who resist the
all students can learn. We use “change change, and launch or modify the change
agent” to encapsulate the desirable (Change Agents section, para. 2). This
disposition outcomes we hope to support in definition suggests several important
preservice teacher field experiences. We see features of change agents: (a) they envision
the shift to being change agents—that is, change as possible; (b) they go beyond what
motivations and beliefs that change the is normally done or do things in a new way;
educational picture for traditionally and (c) they act to make change happen (Lu
underserved students—to be uniquely & Ortlieb, 2009).
important in teacher preparation (Lane, We used these features to define and
Lacefield-Parachini, & Iskin, 2003). challenge preservice teachers to “Go the
Service-learning provides many Extra Mile” in their service sites. We further
opportunities for teacher educators to articulated the things we would see in
support dispositions of change agents (Lu & service-learning experiences as students who
Ortlieb, 2009). met the challenge as those who:
1. performed unexpected services;
Service Learning and Change Agents 2. provided significantly more
“Teacher as change agent” seems to service than was required;
be the flavor of the day. A recent search of 3. demonstrated work actions well
peer-reviewed articles on “teacher” and beyond the expected tutoring or homework
“change agent,” using Academic Search support expected in the service; and
Premier, resulted in 82 articles, with 40 of 4. illustrated self-reflections showing
them published since 2006. The term is used asset views of students.
in a variety of ways, including links to Both preservice teachers and mentor
culturally responsive teaching (Frederick, teachers used this language to analyze the
Cave, & Perencevich, 2009), ownership in quality of service-learning field experiences
one’s work (Lane et al., 2003), and the (see the Appendix: Teacher Rating Form).
moral dimensions of teaching (Fullan,
1993). Increased commitment to make a Study Description
difference when teaching, linked to service- Intent
learning experiences (Howard, 2003), shares
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It is not the intent of our article to what being a change agent looks like when it
identify the components of well-designed begins to develop in service-learning
service learning. This job has been done by experiences, and to identify course design
many others (Bringle & Hatcher, 1999; elements that appear to be linked
Eyler, Giles, & Schmiede, 1996; Marchel, specifically to the development of a sense of
2003). Nor do we want to emphasize the agency. Table 1 provides examples from our
important role of reflection and change in students’ service-learning experiences that
attitudes that are hallmarks of successful we have identified as actions of change
service-learning experiences (Brookfield, agents. Alongside the examples, we list
1990; Eyler et al., 1996). We want to common features of the experiences—
describe how we designed service learning shared features that suggest a rubric for the
to help our students become change agents. analysis of service-learning experiences that
Our focus is to recognize the actions develop students capabilities as change
students take on behalf of others, to illustrate agents.
Table 1. Examples of Change Agents in Service-Learning Field Experiences
Key design feature Examples of going the extra mile

Special education undergraduate in a self-contained classroom for students with
severe disabilities continued service for semester after the course ended.
Increased frequency and length of Physical education major provided 32 (20 hr more than required) hr of service in
contact. one semester. Student provided tutoring in math and reading and outside
materials for students to use.
Middle-level major worked with after-school step team, extending number of
visits by 10 hr and length of visits beyond 2-hr time block, to help prepare team
and accompanied them to regional competition.

Theater education majors in a preschool setting for ELL students developed a
Demonstrated teacher efficacy from use literature-based theater production and performed for parents.
of personal skills and evidence of Spanish education major in self-contained class for students with severe
personal impact on learners. mentally and physical impairments sang songs, read books, and provided outside
materials in student’s first language.
Special education major working with self-contained disability program
developed fund-raising program with sorority to raise research monies for
foundation serving students with particular genetic syndrome of one of the
students.

Elementary education major developed strong mentor relationship with students
in middle school afterschool dance program for low-SES students. S/he
developed dance routines, worked with students on dance competition, and
Engaged in relationship building. accompanied them to the competition.
Elementary education major tutored low-achieving student, encouraging high
expectations through mentoring contacts with student. Went beyond mentoring
to work with teachers and others in school on student’s behalf.
Two students tutoring in low-SES school organized a college campus visit for P–
12 school students to familiarize them with university life.
Note. ELL = English language learner; SES = socioeconomic status.
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Methodology students, and P-12 teacher feedback
We teach a human development course provided at the end of student service (see
paired with service learning as an early field Appendix).
experience. Throughout the Spring 2009 At the end of the semester, students
semester, we collected and analyzed student completed a self-evaluation in which they
narratives, assessments, and class documents rated their own service and provided
to understand change agent actions in our examples of their actions to illustrate their
classes. Our methodology was qualitative, comments. Students were asked to include
guided by ethnographic methods of any information about important activities
participant observation and document they did in their service projects that fit the
analysis (LeCompte & Schensul, 1999). category, “Going the Extra Mile.” This
Ethnographic approaches were particularly section of the self-evaluation narrative was
helpful in the study of our courses; the examined with particular detail to
methodology utilizes multiple ways of understand the actions students took in their
gathering information based on researcher sites, as well as how they interpreted those
decisions and informed by the research actions. Our own observations and notes
process (Goetz & LeCompte, 1984). The also provided a rich source of information
learn-as-you-go aspect of ethnographic throughout the semester.
methodology allowed ongoing problem
solving as a way to inform our own teaching Data Analysis
(Marchel, 2003). Finally, ethnography Two documents, the reflective
allowed us to gauge how field experiences journals completed during the service-
influenced preservice teacher development learning experience and the final student
during the semester because the approach self-report completed at the end of the
built on the perspectives of participants service project, provided the most explicit
being investigated in the study. information on change agent actions.
Reflective journals used a critical incident
Data Collection Methods analysis technique in student journals to
A variety of documents were encourage self-reflection (Brookfield, 1990).
collected in the five course sections we The final service-learning self-report
taught during the semester. We analyzed all required students to explain if and why they
documents in our role as teachers and shared thought they had “Gone the Extra Mile.” We
the general patterns of what we learned read the critical incidents and self-report
through thoughtful analysis. We reported documents to identify participants who had
explicitly only the data from those students (a) performed unexpected services, (b)
who agreed to participate in the study. provided significantly more service than was
Analyzed documents included informal required, (c) demonstrated work actions well
surveys about the service-learning beyond the expected tutoring or homework
experience, a series of five reflective support expected in the service, or (d)
journals completed by students during their illustrated self-reflections showing asset
service-learning experiences, an end-of- views of students.
course self-evaluation completed by
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Once we identified the participants Students were required to complete
whose work “Went the Extra Mile,” we 12–15 hr of service, spread out over the
looked at other documents they produced semester but in at least 5 visits. Student
during the semester. For example, we accounts of hours at sites were recorded on a
reviewed teacher reports, participant signed teacher log, and student self-reports
observation notes, and course assessments to at the end of the course described their visit
check the veracity of student accounts. schedule. Change agents often worked for
Through this triangulation, we identified a more than the required hours, many going to
set of cases that illustrated a range of their site every week. Illustrating this pattern
service-learning experiences that fit the is Scott, who tutored students with special
teacher-as-change-agent outcome. Finally, needs and went to his school site for 32
we identified shared aspects from the service hours. He visited his school twice a week so
experiences common to these experiences. that he could work with the students, talk to
Table 1 also illustrates a representative teachers, and take materials to the class.
sample of these students. The right-hand Scott wrote this about his experience,
column shows the thematic characteristics describing how spending more time with
we found common among the experiences. students allowed him to form relationships
Below we discuss each of these and provide and see the contributions he made:
some general information about preservice I worked a total of 32 hours,
teachers’ actions as change agents in 30 minutes. I brought over
service-learning experiences. materials for students who
needed help with their
Findings: The Actions of Change reading. I helped Brady and
Agents in Service Learning Rachel with their reading and
Three key course features were I showed Rachel ways to help
linked to change agency in service-learning her with multiplication and
experiences: (a) frequency and number of reading. I kept working with
contacts; (b) strong interpersonal Brady. At first she didn’t want
relationships; and (c) perceptions of efficacy help, but then she came
in effecting change. Sometimes all three are around.
present in an experience but not always. In some cases, education students
Quite often, these themes interacted. For provided extended services to students and
example, when students spent regular and schools, increasing the timing of visits to
extended amounts of time performing two or more times a week, providing e-mail
service, they were likely to form or telephone help on homework outside of
relationships with people at a school and school hours, or even continuing to work
have more opportunities to provide with students in semesters that followed the
meaningful services that increased their one in which the service-learning project
sense of self-efficacy. was assigned. For example, Nancy, a special
education major, continued to work on an
Frequency and Timing individual education plan’s (IEP)
communication goals with a student in a
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self-contained program for severely did not treat him like a trouble
handicapped students, going every week the maker. Now that I have worked with
semester following her service-learning Student X, I can stand up for him if I
semester. Increased frequency of visits and hear any bad comments. I can also
extending visits over time allow students to make sure that when I am a teacher, I
form meaningful relationships with teachers pay close attention to what I say
and students at service-learning sites. around students. Constructive
criticism is important for helping
Opportunities for Relationships growth, but I can restrain from
In many cases, our education gossiping with other teachers about
students reported that relationships with the bad behavior. If you want to make
students they worked with were important. conversation, it shouldn’t be done at
Laura’s work tutoring an English language a child’s expense.
learner (ELL) at an elementary school Relationships support the importance
illustrates her relationship with the student: of extended time spent at service sites
I tried to show him that I had because only over time do positive
high expectations for him. relationships develop. When education
His teacher had almost given students had strong relationships with P–12
up, and his parents were tired students, they also were more likely to act
of him always being in on their behalf, leading to increased feelings
trouble. I was the only one of self-efficacy as helpers—the third theme,
constantly pushing him to do which we discuss next.
better and do more.
Students who recognized Teacher Efficacy
relationships as important made sure they Teacher efficacy is the term we used
apologized to P–12 students when they for experiences in which our students
could not come, extended the length of time described meaningful contributions they
they worked in schools to well past the end made at sites. In teacher education, teacher
of the semester, and provided special efficacy refers to beliefs that one is
services to students and teachers outside of competent and can be successful in reaching
the service-learning requirements. When teaching goals (Knoblauch & Woolfolk-
education students developed relationships Hoy, 2008). Similar beliefs are also central
with P–12 students, they began to to acting as change agents in the future
understand the perspective of the other and (Ayers et al., 2009b). Examples of teacher
were willing to act as an advocate. For efficacy are wide ranging but share some
example, Jack said this about his work with common features. According to Knoblauch
a low-socioeconomic (SES) student, about and Woolfolk-Hoy (2008), teacher efficacy
whom teachers made negative comments: experiences often involve using a unique
My response was to take into skill or ability that fits a specific teaching
consideration Student X’s issues but context and recognizing one’s role in
disregard negative comments. I successful outcomes. We saw features of
treated him like any other student. I teacher efficacy in the experiences of our
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preservice teachers when they described songs outside of the
personal actions that had an impact on P–12 classroom. . . . While
students. For example, a student who spoke working with Ben today . . . I
Spanish learned that a P–12 student with feel that for a few moments I
multiple and significant special needs was had engaged him
able to understand and respond to Spanish, emotionally.
when until that time, English-only school In a second example, two theater
professionals thought the student had no education students who went “the extra
language abilities. The journal entry below mile” showed efficacy in their use of child
describes the experience: literature to develop a theater performance.
While the other teachers were Their actions included creating stage sets
working with other students, and costumes to help preschool ELLs put on
I sat next to Ben. Ben was a performance for their parents. In her
lying on a bed with his head account of experiences at the site, Breanna
and neck supported by a clearly linked her work to the special skills
special brace and pillow. He of her discipline:
was on his stomach, facing I worked with the children on
me. I began to sing softly to numerous occasions, using my
him some Spanish songs that discipline of theater. I wrote
I know by heart, so as not to narrative pantomime, led story
disrupt the other teachers. He dramatizations, and produced
reacted in a way in which I mini-plays for the children to
had not seen him previously perform with their parents.
react. His eyes focused on me Preservice teachers must be given
and widened, he lifted his opportunities to make an impact on P–12
head up with an obvious students to make a difference. Opportunities
effort, opened his mouth and to make a difference do not always require
made a soft, high-pitched that an education student possess special
vocalization that appeared to skills, only that their presence at a school is
be his way of trying to speak crucial in some way. For example, Amy said
or outwardly express an inner this about her work at a school that serves
emotion. Ben reacted many rural, low-SES students:
similarly when Spanish I was a huge help at my site.
music was played on the For most of the time I spent
classroom CD player, and I there, one of the teachers had
had never seen him react to a broken ankle. As a result,
the English music that was she needed me to
almost constantly playing. He demonstrate different
only physically responded to activities such as jumping
certain songs, which rope that she was unable to
indicated to me that perhaps do. She was very thankful
he was familiar with certain and told me several times
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how good it was that I was a specific skill following a simple
here and willing to step into preassessment, and then measuring learning
the gap. gains with an assessment, gives visible proof
It is important for preservice teachers that one’s actions make a difference.
to be able to use their skills in some ways Providing students with skills likely to make
that have an impact on P–12 students. a difference are important. For example,
Allowing preservice teachers to gauge their showing students how to support vocabulary
own skills and abilities and select sites development when working with ELL
where those skills will be used facilitates students and telling them what materials to
experiences of teacher efficacy. See our take with them mean they are more likely to
suggestions below for ways to encourage a have an impact on the important targeted
good match between preservice teacher and skills.
P–12 student needs. 3. Maximize self-selection of sites—
Although not always possible, allowing
Suggestions students to match their skills and interests to
It is important for preservice teachers a service site means that they are more likely
to begin to experience their role as change to provide meaningful service in that site. In
agents. Service-learning field experiences our work, the following examples illustrate
can support this desirable outcome during the match of ability and site: (a) a music
teacher preparation programs but only if education student provided after-school
carefully designed and implemented. Our band lessons; (b) a biology student set up
analysis of preservice change agents during interactive science activities in an after-
our own service-learning experiences school program; and (c) a special education
suggests the following course-design major helped a student with communication
features: needs meet specific IEP goals. To promote
1. Have students explore and self-selection of sites, we created a database
understand the context—Make sure of teachers in regional schools and listed the
preservice teachers understand the needs, specific needs each teacher had. Our
resources, and social issues influencing the students contacted teachers to tell them what
students, classrooms, and schools in which skills they themselves had and worked with
they work. Such understanding allows the teacher to help use those skills.
students to see why their work is meaningful 4. Encourage extended time in the
and helps them understand the students with field—When planning service-learning
whom they will work, increasing the experiences, students are more likely to
likelihood that they will form meaningful develop meaningful relationships with P–12
relationships with the students. students and teachers, engage in meaningful
2. Provide opportunities to make a activities, and learn that they can make a
difference—Activities that require education difference if they are in the site over
students to collect direct evidence of the extended periods of time. Going to a site
impact that they have on P–12 students once or twice is less likely to have those
allows them to see the importance of strong outcomes, but weekly visits over the
actions. For example, having students teach semester were more likely to result in
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Preservice Teachers as Change Agents 12

change agent actions. For example, one of Each day, I went knowing I
the features of positive mentoring outcomes would help the students more
is increased length of time for the mentoring and my visits helped with
relationship (DuBois & Silverman, 2004). their reading level rising.
Many students in our courses continued to These last comments capture
go to schools when the required service time many elements of making a
was over, and in some cases, when the difference; the student goes beyond
semester ended. merely fulfilling required times,
5. Make the role of change agent recognizes the importance of his
explicit—At the beginning of service- relationship with the student, and
learning field experiences, discuss what it believes that the service he provides
means for teachers to be change agents. matters. When students “Go the
Provide examples from educational settings Extra Mile,” like this, service-
to illustrate the concept. Describe the kinds learning field experiences for future
of actions in service-learning experiences teachers are at their best.
that show a preservice teacher acting as a
change agent. Finally, use the language of References
change agent actions in course documents Ayers, W., Quinn, T., & Stovall, D.
and assessments. (Eds.). (2009a). Handbook of
In summary, when evaluating social justice in education.
whether service-learning field experiences New York, NY: Routledge.
supported change-agent dispositions of Ayers, W., Quinn, T., & Stovall, D.
preservice teachers, look for those who have (Eds.). (2009b). Preface. In
gone the extra mile. Preservice change W. Ayers, T. Quinn, & D.
agents often exceed minimal course Stovall (Eds.), Handbook of
requirements in a variety of ways. These social justice in education (p.
include (a) believing that one is making a xiv). New York, NY:
difference, (b) forming meaningful Routledge.
relationships with those at the site, and (c) Bringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. A. (1999).
making frequent visits to a site over an Reflection in service learning:
extended time period. All of these elements Making meaning of experience.
are present in Melia’s analysis of her work Educational Horizons, 77, 179–185.
tutoring after school students: Brookfield, S. (1990). Using critical
I went to the school extra incidents to explore learners’
hours and I would have gone assumptions. In J. Mezirow (Ed.),
more if my school was not Fostering critical reflection in
ending earlier than theirs. adulthood (pp. 177–193). San
The only time I missed was Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
for Spring Break and once Butcher, J., Howard, P., Labone, E., Bailey,
when I was sick. Those two M., Smith, S., McFadden, M., &
times I apologized to my Martinez, K. (2003). Teacher
student for not being there. education, community service
Fall, 2011 Teaching Educational Psychology 7:2