ERIC EJ942873: Critical Thinking: Ethical Reasoning as Essential to Fairminded Critical Thinking, Part III

2010·0.24 MB·English

by  ERIC

Critical Thinking: not the thing!” Being trapped in one set of concepts (ideas, words) leads to
trapped thinking. Word and thing become one and the same making one
Ethical Reasoning as unable then to act as a free and ethical person.
Ideas formed in personal experience are often egocentric in nature.
Essential to Fairminded Ideas inherited from social indoctrination are typically ethnocentric in
nature. Both can limit one’s insight significantly. This is where understand-
Critical Thinking, Part III ing the ethical terms in a native language can help.
Ideas learned from academic subjects and from the study of distinc-
tions inherent in the uses of language can provide a perspective beyond
By Richard Paul and Linda Elder personal egocentrism and social ideology. Learning to think historically,
sociologically, anthropologically, scientifically, and philosophically, allows
In the last two columns we introduced the idea of ethical reasoning and one to see ignorance, prejudice, stereotypes, illusions, and biases in per-
discussed its importance to education. We dealt with the problem of ego- sonal thinking and in common societal thinking.
centric thinking as a barrier to ethical reasoning. And we focused on the In addition, command of ethical distinctions implicit in established
importance of distinguishing ethics from other modes of thought with linguistic usage can have a significant influence upon the way an individ-
which it is often confused, namely social conventions, religious ideologies, ual shapes experience. Such a command allows one to distinguish ethics
and the law. In this column we focus on language as a guide to ethical from religion, social convention, and politics. This ability impacts person-
reasoning, pointing out that ethical concepts, and their implications, are al judgments and interpretation of situations.
implicit in ordinary or natural languages (as distinguished from technical
languages). We also discuss the connection between ethical concepts and Fundamental Ethical Concepts Are Embedded in
principles.
Natural Languages
As students come to better understand the relationship between lan-
guage and ideas, and as they learn to identify ethical concepts (and their To reason well through an ethical question or issue requires identifying
opposites), they are progressively better able to reason ethically. They can and applying the ethical concepts relevant to it. But where does one find
better identify when they or others are using ideas in ways that harm, or these concepts? They are inherent in all natural languages, such as Ger-
might harm, sentient creatures. man, French, Japanese, and English. To identify them, one need only refer
to a good dictionary.
Taking Command of the Ideas through Doing ethical good involves promoting kindness, compassion, under-
standing, open-mindedness, tolerance, forgiveness, mercy, considerate-
Which We See the World
ness, civility, respect, generosity, empathy, justice, impartiality, integrity,
Ideas are to humans like the air they breathe. They project them every- and fair-play. Doing harm involves: thoughtlessness, egocentricity, cruelty,
where, yet rarely notice this. Individuals use words and the ideas they injustice, greed, domination, selfishness, disrespect, prejudice, narrow-
express to create a personal picture of the world. Human experience is mindedness, hypocrisy, insensitivity, meanness, brutality, malice, hatred,
understood through ideas, often uncritically funneled into the categories spite, vindictiveness, avarice, discrimination, small-mindedness, duplicity,
of “good” and “evil.” Most uncritically assume themselves to be good and insincerity, callousness, heartlessness, viciousness, ruthlessness, intoler-
uncritically assume their enemies to be evil. People select positive terms ance, pettiness, dishonesty, fraudulence, deceit, violence, sadism, cheat-
to cover up the “indefensible” things they do, select negative terms to con- ing, and lying.
demn even the good things their enemies do, and often see the world in a One must understand and become sensitive to such ideas that shed
distorted way to personal advantage. Conceptualizations often result from light on the difference between acting in an ethical or unethical manner in
indoctrination or social conditioning (with allegiances presented, uncriti- order to act ethically. To maximize the good and minimize harm to others,
cally, of course, in positive terms). it is imperative to learn to monitor and assess personal thoughts, feelings,
Ideas, then, present paths to both reality and self-delusion. It is unusual dispositions, and actions. One must become skilled in identifying ego-
for anyone to recognize oneself as engaged in idea construction of any kind, centric behaviors, self-serving actions, and/or self-deceptive perspectives.
whether for good or ill. In everyday life one doesn’t consciously experience Individuals must recognize how common it is for humans to act without
shaping what one sees and constructing the world to one’s advantage. respect for the rights and needs of others and how often people behave
To the uncritical mind, it is as if people in the world surface with pre- like those they condemn. Ethical thinkers see the “good” in enemies and
scribed labels for them inherent in who they are. THEY are “terrorists.” the “evil” in themselves. As William Graham Sumner has said, “that we are
WE are “freedom fighters.” All fall victim at times to an inevitable illusion good and others evil is never true.” Everyone is a mixture of both.
of objectivity. This view sees others not sharing a common human nature,
but (absolutistically) as “friends” and “enemies” and accordingly “good” Basic Ethical Principles Emerge From Ethical Concepts
or “bad.” Ideology, self-deception, and myth play a large part in everyone’s After understanding ethical concepts, it becomes clear that ethical principles
development of thinking and judging behavior. Individuals’ minds oper- are implicit in them. Ethical principles should be a guiding force in ethical
ate, however, as if each person was simply a neutral observer of reality. reasoning. To become skilled in any domain of reasoning one must under-
And to top it off, people often become self-righteous when their ideas are stand the principles that define that domain. To be skilled in mathematical
challenged. reasoning, it is critical to understand fundamental mathematical principles.
Developing as ethical reasoners requires taking a new stance towards To be skilled in scientific reasoning, it is essential to understand fundamen-
oneself. People must come to recognize the ideas through which they see tal scientific principles (principles of physics, of chemistry, of astronomy,
and experience the world and become the master of those ideas. One must and so on). In like manner, to be skilled in ethical reasoning, it is imperative
learn to think with alternative ideas, and within alternative “world views.” to understand fundamental ethical principles. In many cases identification/
As general semanticists often say: “The word is not the thing! The word is application of ethical principles is simple. In some cases it is not.
36 JOURNAL of DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION
Consider some simple cases. Lying about, misrepresenting, or distort-
ing the facts to gain a material advantage over others is clearly a violation The National Tutoring Association's
of the basic principle implied by the concept of honesty. Expecting others
19th Annual Conference
to live up to standards that one routinely violates is clearly a violation of
the basic principle implied by the concept of integrity. Treating others as if
they were worth less than oneself is a violation of the principles implied by
April 9-13, 2011 Anchorage Hilton, 
the concepts of integrity, justice, and equality. It is unethical to kill people
to get their money or to torture people due to assuming they are guilty and
Anchorage, AK
ought to confess.
Complicated ethical questions arise when conflicting ethical principles
seemingly apply to the same case: Which should be given precedence? In
those cases one should engage in dialogical reasoning between conflicting
ethical perspectives. Judge the reasoning used by each perspective as in
any other multilogi-
cal question open to
reasonable debate.
Of utmost impor-
tance is approach-
ing complex cases
with intellectual hu-
mility, avoiding the
tendency toward
self-righteousness
in applying ethical Tutors: Running For The
principles. Roses of Student Success
Conclusion For further information call [phone]
Ethical reasoning or visit our website at www.ntatutor.org
requires a certain
kind of fitness of
mind which can be
gained only through
understanding the RESEARCH IN
DEVELOPMENTAL
  foundations of ethi- EDUCATION
cal reasoning and
D. Patrick Saxon and
regularly applying them in ethical situations. In this column we have fo- Barbara J. Calderwood, Coeditors
cused on the foundational idea that in all natural or ordinary languages Published by Appalachian State University Volume 19, Issue 3, 2005
there are concepts that identify what is ethically good as well as concepts Pursuing Persistence: What Variables Make a Difference?
which identify that which is ethically harmful. These concepts have been By Teri Maddox
developed by humans over thousands of years. Yet, most students are Open access has given many Americans the chance to consider measure how these variables might impact persistence. Therefore,
the dream of a college degree. The Education Trust (1999) states, Boshier’s variables are used as background or independent variables
unaware of both the role that concepts play in human thought and the “cColulergreen wtlyit haibno utwt oth ryeeea-rqsu aorft egrrsa odfu ahtiigohn .s c hIof opl rgersaednut agterso wwtihll groat teos fmoor daepl polfi csatutidoenn tw ditehpianr tua res e(c1o9n7d5 ).model, Tinto’s interactionalist
continue, more than 80% of today’s sixth graders will end up in Tinto’s model focuses on interactions the student has with the
ethical concepts implicit in ordinary languages. Consequently they are ...reviewincgoll ecgeu” (pr. 3r)e. Bnut tso arrineg scoellegae erncrohllm erntes mlaay ntoet ndece stsaorily deavcadeemloic apnd msociael asnpetctsa ofl t he institution. Tinto (1975) explains,
mean meeting the goal of obtaining a college diploma. Mortenson “The process of dropout from college can be viewed as a longitudinal
often unaware of the extent to which their ideas lead them to behave ethi- (1999) has found that 45% of freshmen at community colleges do not process of interactions between the individual and the academic and
eperdsistu toc thaeirt sioophonmo rien ye aar. Idnenetifywing swhlye stutdtenets rco mfoe tormasoctia.l systems of the college” (p. 94). Students enter college with
college and why they don’t succeed is an important goal for individual characteristics, including family socioeconomic status,
cally or unethically. As students learn the role of ethical concepts in ethi- community colleges. individual attributes such as age, and precollege scholastic ability.
Programs in developmental education have sought to identify These characteristics are hypothesized to affect the initial
cal reasoning, and as they see that ethical principles emerge from ethical underprepared students and offer basic skills instruction in math, commitment students have to their goal of college graduation and
reading, writing, and learning strategies; it is not unusual for the institution. Initial commitment in turn influences the level of
community colleges to report that more than 65% of their first-time integration into the academic system, including grades and social
concepts, they have a better and better chance of reasoning ethically in freshmen need such courses (Roueche & Roueche, 1999). The interactions with faculty and peers. Persistence in college is
presen$ce o1f de6velo/pmventaol stuldeunts imn higheer ed u(ca4tion iiss usnliukelyes)hypothesized to be influenced by all these variables.
situations which call on them to do so. Of course, these concepts must to diminish. Today’s economy is based on knowledge industries that
depend on highly skilled employees, and postsecondary education is Methodology
be understood in relationship with a constellation of ethical foundations. rheigqhu irscehdo foolr w80it%h tohfe n newec ejosbsasr; yh oskwiellvs etro, obnelgyi n4 2c%ol loefg set-uledveenl tsst uledaivees Fall 2T0h0i2rt ayt-e aig mhtid osfi ztehde sfoifutyt-hoenren t cootaml mdeuvneiltoyp cmolelnegtael wmearteh r calnasdsoems ilny
(McCabe, 2000). selected to participate in this study. An instrument was developed
Grimes and David (1999) state that, although 75% of colleges combining Boshier’s EPS and Tinto’s interactionalist model of
have data regarding the numbers of underprepared students and student departure. Surveys were distributed to the 750 students
Reference Published btahytteiit rut drheetsee, nvt aiNolune asin, tacnoidoll esgneelf a-leexvlpe leC cctoeautirnosentss, et“hlirattt lecfo odualrtda piDsr oaevvaidivlea ebal eld oaebeppoeurmt entraekttuinargnl e tdhE,o ads er eudspecovenalsoetp rimaoteenn otafl 9m4%at.h classes, and 706 surveys were
understanding of these students and a basis for making informed There were three levels of independent variables (see Figure 1).
program decisions” (p. 75). This study seeks to provide this “deeper Level 1 included the seven motivations from Boshier’s EPS and
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2006). The thinker’s guide to understanding the foun- understanding” of underprepared students’ attitudes, values, and student background characteristics such as age, family income, and
expectations and to identify variables that might influence their math ability (as measured by the COMPASS Placement Test). These
dations of ethical reasoning. Dillon Beach, CA: Foundation for Critical pmFeorodsiTesltrw eoon f sc mAe udoinud lbectol sPl slaaerrgcteei c.ruipsiaetpdio innt aithnoids Dnstruod piyo.n u tF,f irwosht iicrsh mB ios sbhaaiseertd’s io(1on9 t7nh3e) vismvaairiyta Tba lhl eseso wbseeerc eor genfadet hrreleerdev detl o fr ooamfs etihxnoed geseptunedoneudnse tn vstau rrivvaaebryliesa.sb. leDsa taw afso r Itnhietisael
Thinking assumption that participation and persistence in adult education are Commitment. This was measured by survey questions such as “It is
httpdbee:ttwe/reme/nin tewhde sbeyl fw haonwd tpwheeo epdleu. cnfaeteiol ncaablo eduntv itrheoenmm.seeanlvte. s pB aonsdhp iethr’ess (m19at7tc1ha) teicmhop.ooesritnagnd tt ofo artu tmened t o[t hgrisa]d cuoamtem fruonmit yc coollleleggee” wora s“ It haem r icgohntf dideecnisti othna.”t
Educational Participation Scale (EPS, revised in 1983 and 1992) The third level of independent variables measured peer and faculty
measures motivations to participate in higher education. Reasons to interaction and was referred to as Academic System. Initial
Richard Paul is the founder and director of the Center for Critical Think- participate may include communication improvement (to speak or Commitment and Academic System variables may also be referred
write better), social contact (to meet new people), educational to as endogenous variables. Grade Point Average (GPA) was also
ing and Linda Elder is the president of the Foundation for Critical Thinking at padrevpanarcaetmioenn t ((ttoo geptr ae pbaertete r fjoorb ofru ardthvearn cee)d, ufacmatiiloyn t)o, geptrhoefrensesisos n(taol cfroonmsi dtheree sdtu ind eLnetv seul r3v aesy sw aenlld. Dinasttait fuotrio tnhaels er evcaorriadbsl.e sT wheer dee gpaethnedreendt
keep up with children or spouse), social stimulation (to get relief variable was Persistence as measured by enrolling in and paying for
Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, CA 94928. from boredom or loneliness), and cognitive development (to learn classes in the Spring 2003 semester. This information was gathered
for the fun of it). Knowing students’ reasons for participating in after student enrollment data were purged for nonpayment from
postsecondary education is important, but it is also important to Spring 2003 institutional records.
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37 JOURNAL of DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION