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PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION Spring 2011 | PAGE 19 Using Critical Reflection to Improve Urban Teacher Preparation: A Collaborative Inquiry of Three Teacher Educators Beth Berghoff, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Sue Blackwell, University of Indianapolis, Randy Wisehart, Earlham College ABSTRACT This collaborative inquiry examines the ways new teachers are being prepared as critical reflective practitioners in three urban teacher education programs. Researching individually and collectively, the research team analyzes and compares pedagogical methods and program features for preparing new teachers for urban schools. Their findings detail how each teaching method impacted preservice teachers’ capacity to do critical reflection. The researchers recommend working with dilemmas, following structured protocols, and practicing collaborative inquiry as means to teaching critical reflection. They also recognize the need to continually develop their own explicit frameworks for critical reflection. INTRODUCTION students to see that practice and reflec- (Noguera, 2003) and to challenge un- tion go hand-in-hand. Our preservice examined assumptions and develop Urban teacher education programs teachers implemented teaching and as- the agency to work with their students, are being asked to prepare teachers to sessment strategies, monitored student colleagues, and communities to coun- take on “unprecedented responsibili- progress, and adjusted lesson plans to teract these barriers to education. ties” and “unmet challenges” (NCATE, improve student learning. But we were In our own careers, the ability to re- 2010, p. 1). Knowing the content of troubled by what happened when these flect critically developed through our the curriculum is not enough when students encountered the intractable involvement in collaborative inquiry. In teachers are expected “to educate all conditions of urban schooling, such as the 1990’s, we each worked with school- children—including those from in- accountability systems, scripted cur- based “critical friends groups” associ- creasingly diverse economic, racial, riculum, labels, and institutionalized ated with school reform efforts based linguistic, and academic backgrounds” racism. Our students tended to acqui- on the Ten Common Principles of the (p. 1). New teachers must be able to esce to the inequities in the classrooms Coalition of Essential Schools (Cush- respond to students’ cognitive and or schools. Their deficit views showed man, 1999). One outcome of this work social-emotional needs; they have to through as they blamed students, par- was a model for collaborative inquiry know the communities around the ents, and teachers for what caused shown here and explained in detail in a schools and apply knowledge of child them difficulty in the classroom. dissertation by James Kilbane (2007). growth and development; they have to To help our students get beyond This model (Kilbane, 2007) shows be experts at assessment, with strat- a sense of powerlessness as teachers that collaborative inquiry is an on- egies for monitoring students’ prog- in urban schools, we experimented going process that vacillates between ress and engaging them in learning. with ways to teach not just reflection, collaborative and personal inquiry. Overall, new teachers need collabora- but critical reflection. We wanted our For example, the collaborative inquiry tion, communication, and problem- students to question their own roles project we discuss in this article be- solving skills to be fully prepared for in the reproduction of inequitable gan when we met to discuss our teach- the uncertainties and challenges they schooling (Malarkey, 2005). Through ing and one of us brought a request will face in 21st century classrooms. critical reflection, we wanted to help for journal manuscripts about reflec- In our own practice as teacher ed- students develop the ability to look be- tive practice in teacher education. We ucators preparing new teachers for yond their own experience to those of thought the journal editors posed some the complexity of urban schools, we other teachers and schools and to con- provocative questions. (We were Ac- worked to build the reflective and com- sider how they are being positioned by cepting Invitations in the collaborative munication skills of our preservice larger political, social and economic inquiry model.) We left our meeting teachers so they could carefully ob- systems (Zeichner, 1996). We believed with a plan to do some personal jour- serve, analyze, diagnose, design, and our students needed to understand naling about our own teaching of re- evaluate teaching and learning (Dar- and name the systems of oppression flective practice (Personal Focusing). ling-Hammond, 2008). We believed that keep poor and minority learners When we reconvened (Collective that our own teaching and the field ex- from accessing the “American Dream” Focusing), we learned that each of us periences in our programs enabled our PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION Spring 2011 | PAGE 20 was implementing an instructional 11 career changers and 26 who came service teachers to recognize the im- strategy we had learned and used suc- straight from an undergraduate institu- portance of creating knowledge about cessfully with teachers as school reform tion. The participants were all second- teaching rather than merely receiv- coaches (Life Experiences). Randy was ary teacher candidates from two differ- ing it (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009). focused on asking probing questions; ent cohorts of the MAT program. The At the outset of the program, Randy Sue was experimenting with multiple program was comprised of a summer explicitly modeled his own use of prob- protocols; and Beth was asking stu- semester that included foundational ing questions as part of reflection about dents to reflect on dilemmas that pre- coursework, a fall semester that in- professional readings to help his stu- sented themselves in student teaching. cluded both coursework and field expe- dents learn to challenge assumptions Over the next year, we each collected riences, and a spring semester that in- when they read professionally. Some and analyzed data (Analyzing and cluded student teaching and a seminar of those questions encouraged stu- Collecting Data), discussed our find- course. After receiving licensure in the dents to challenge assumptions about ings (Discussing with Colleagues), and spring, the participants completed one power structures in schools and class- completed the last four steps in the final course electronically during their rooms (Cranton, 2006; Nieto, 1999). process as we started writing this ar- first semester of teaching. The program Working with the same cohort during ticle, getting peer review, and finalizing used a social networking application the second semester, Randy taught our shared thoughts for publication. called Moodle for the online course. them to pose questions about what This collaborative inquiry is an in- The participants were placed in a va- they saw in their field experiences, stance of “inquiry as stance” as it is riety of nearby schools. Nearly a third their course readings, and the connec- described by Cochran-Smith and Lytle of the students were placed in second- tions between the readings and what (2009). We conducted our research ary schools of about 1,700 students they saw in schools. This was done not only to inform the field, but also with high poverty (over 60% free and both individually and in collaborative to generate local knowledge about reduced lunch) and some diversity (ap- groups. In the third semester, the MAT how to improve our personal teach- proximately 25% minority). The other candidates transitioned into full-time ing and our teacher education pro- two thirds of the participants were student teaching, and they used the grams. Toward that end, we studied placed in smaller rural schools with standards of the program to generate the impact of the three instructional little diversity (over 94% Caucasian), probing questions about teaching and strategies (1. probing questions, 2. pro- but significant poverty (ranging from learning in their classroom. Finally, tocols, 3. dilemmas) on the learning 30% to 48% free and reduced lunch). the MAT students participated in an of our preservice teachers, with a spe- Randy and a co-teaching partner online course to complete their mas- cial interest in finding out how these delivered both the coursework and the ter’s degree. In this virtual context, strategies influenced our students’ supervision for the annual cohort of they posted responses electronically development of critical reflection. students. During the entire school year, and Randy monitored their ability to they observed and met with the student apply reflective questioning to their RESEARCH CONTEXTS AND teachers on a regular basis, each doing practice in their first semester of teach- a minimum of 15 formal observations ing. The online context supported both METHODOLOGIES: THREE CASE STUDIES with each student during the school personal and collaborative reflections. In this section, we present case year. Mentor teachers also did many Data collection, and analysis. studies from three different urban formal and informal observations. The To determine how the instruction fos- teacher education programs high- program used a coaching model which tered on-going reflection on the part of lighting different instructional strat- required both the supervisors and the the new teachers, Randy analyzed doc- egies for teaching critical reflection. mentor teachers to give frequent fo- uments from 37 graduates of two dif- cused feedback to the student teach- ferent cohorts using a coding process Probing Questions ers in both fall and spring semesters. based on grounded theory (Strauss & Context and participants. Ran- Teaching methods. For the pur- Corbin, 1998). He read capstone es- dy taught and supervised graduate stu- poses of this study, Randy focused on says that candidates wrote as the fi- dents in a Masters of Arts in Teaching the instructional strategy of asking nal assignment at the culmination of (MAT) program at a small liberal arts probing questions as a developmen- the three semester program. He also college in the Midwest. Randy was in tal step toward ongoing critical re- read electronic responses posted to his fourth year at the college after a flection. Asking probing questions is Moodle during the final online course. thirty-year career as a secondary Eng- important because meaningful ques- Randy undertook data analysis as lish teacher, professional development tions help new teachers uncover as- a recursive cycle (Creswell, 2006) in- facilitator, teacher-leader, and assis- sumptions that can hinder reflective cluding organizing the data, reviewing tant high school principal. practice (Brookfield, 2006; Mezirow, all data to get a sense of what it meant The student participants in this case 2000). Constant questioning (Nieto, as a whole, writing notes and ques- study included 37 MAT candidates be- 1999) and the development of an inner tions, identifying categories or themes, tween the ages of 22-48. There were dialogue (Palmer, 1998) enable pre- and integrating/summarizing the data PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION Spring 2011 | PAGE 21 (Creswell, 2006). He read all capstone develop through my experiences. Teaching is a continual journey. essays for Cohort 6 and all Moodle responses for Cohort 5. He analyzed es- Over 70% of the capstone essays During the final course that MAT says and responses for any patterns included references to reflection that graduates took during their first year of or themes that supported or refuted took into account not only a teacher’s teaching, they continued to reflect on the premise that this program was inner life but also an awareness of the how course readings and experiences developing the reflective capacities of importance of anchoring reflection in from the preceding year impacted who teaching candidates (Leedy and Orm- their students and their colleagues. they were and how they were applying rod, 2005). Data were coded in order what they believed to their practice. to help identify themes which included What began as an inner longing to While all MAT graduates reflected on the developmental nature of reflection, be a better teacher led me to look how they were applying ideas from their the role of dilemmas or disorienting outward for answers. I have learned program to their practice, a number of events, the complex nature of reflec- that the answers to my questions are them involved their students in their tion including challenging of assump- within me. They can’t be explained, reflection as well. tions or generation of new questions, clearly and simply to me in a few and the social construction of identity. hours…The answers are hidden, bit The wheels fell off completely in After analyzing capstone essays and by bit, in each class I teach. They second period on Friday. They went Moodle responses, time was allotted are in my experiences with my stu- from social to insane…I’ve been go- for stepping back to consider the ques- dents, my colleagues, and with my ing over things in my mind…What tions: What is the overall data telling own inner teacher. They are in my could I have done differently? They me at this point? What is it that I do not ability and willingness to reflect on were doing group work, maybe I know yet? (Bogdan and Biklen, 2007). myself as a teacher and my own per- should have moved some groups Findings. An analysis of the cap- formance in the classroom. The in- farther away from each other, or stone essays suggested that MAT can- formation exists with my colleagues moved one group into the hallway didates had internalized a capacity to in their hundreds of collective years so that there were fewer distrac- reflect in ways that were instrumental of craft knowledge. The answers I tions. Or maybe the fact that several to their ongoing professional growth. seek are in my students, if I will only of them are failing has taken their A majority of the MAT candidates in- humble myself enough to ask them. attitude from apathetic to hateful. dicated that their personal growth was intertwined with their profes- More than 70% of the MAT can- Fortunately one student started to sional growth. Over 80% of them didates also showed that they had freak out about what they needed to used phrases such as “continuing to internalized the process of continu- finish for the day and asked, “How improve,” “never arriving,” “continuing to pose questions as they en- are we supposed to do this on Mon- ally growing,” or “always developing” gaged in inquiry. Some of their re- day?” It just happened to be at one to describe their understanding that flections about questioning were of those moments when everyone their personal growth was integral directly related to content-specific in- had stopped talking for a few sec- to their lives as teachers. The same struction while other reflections were onds. high percentage of MAT candidates more general such as the following: also used various ways to describe I said, “Well, let’s talk about that.” the importance of posing questions Nieto (1999) states, “All good teach- And we did. They had five minutes to help them reflect on their teaching is about transformation.” I be- left to decide what chapter they ing. The following excerpt was typical lieve that is true in my continued would read, read it, select an im- of nearly all the capstone essays in its educational journey. I will continu- portant scene and decide how their emphasis on reflection that connected ally question my effectiveness as a group would act it out on Monday. their identity to their professional life. teacher: Am I meeting the needs of Some groups were further along my students? Is there more I need than others, but it obviously wasn’t …becoming a successful teacher is to do to ensure academic success? going to happen before the bell. I a journey and a process. It is a dis- How are my students learning? How asked them how they found them- covery of self, where we are con- do I know? Striving to answer these selves in this mess and what they stantly questioning our actions, constant questions will require me expected from me at this point. We thoughts, and words…I have made to stay educated on best practices, ended up negotiating a 30 minute a lifelong commitment of develop- consistently share craft knowledge window on Monday for them to fin- ing a teacher identity that will di- with colleagues, and never forget ish preparing for their scenes. So, rectly affect my students’ lives… I have much to learn from my stu- in a way, it worked out better than This means that ultimately, my dents. My students are and will I could have hoped, because they goal as a teacher is to develop and continue to be my greatest tool in reached such a crisis point that I nurture my character. I must re- “awakening the teacher within”… finally had their attention and we mind myself that my character will could talk about what happened PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION Spring 2011 | PAGE 22 before they disappeared to the hall- third semester of the program. The Students wrote their dilemmas ahead ways. students began this 18-credit Tran- of class, presented them to a small sition to Teaching program by tak- group for questions, and then reflected The previous example shows how ing one summer course. They took on both their dilemma and the consul- the new teacher had internalized the two courses in the fall and spring and tancy process. Students wrote three sense that reflection was not only on- finished the following summer with separate entries and post-conversation going, but should sometimes be done a final capstone seminar. They were reflections over the course of class with students. Involving students as placed in middle school classrooms as meetings. Each then completed a final part of reflection was not described partners during the fall semester and reflection on the use of the protocols by as something extraordinary. On the as student teachers in high schools the end of the semester. These writings contrary, the description seemed in the spring. While they were taking comprised the data set for analysis. to imply that strong relationships Sue’s class, they were placed as student This data set was analyzed using el- with students had already been de- teachers in two different high schools ements from grounded theory (Glazer veloped allowing for such collabora- in the local large urban school district and Strauss, 1967) and content analy- tive reflection to take place without where they experienced the impact of sis (Stemler, 2001). Sue used an emer- preparation, without outside support, poverty on student learning (84% free gent design for coding, identifying key and without extensive preparation and reduced lunch and 1,300 homeless phrases and words used by each stu- on the part of the first year teacher. students in the system) and the chal- dent. She conducted a content analy- Randy’s results suggest that his lenge of diversity (12% ESL students, sis of each student’s writing, coding MAT students internalized a capacity 66% minority students, and 20% stu- language that suggested how well The to reflect on their practice and, indeed, dents labeled as special education). Consultancy worked for each student, to begin to see reflection as something as represented by their phrasing. While they do with their students--not merely Teaching Methods. In previous not doing a word frequency count, she about their students. The sense of on- work as a school coach, Sue had great did search for phrasing that defined the going questioning and challenging of success using protocols with groups of usefulness of the protocol for each stu- assumptions that he tried to embed teachers, and she believed that step- dent. After this initial analysis, Sue be- throughout his instruction seemed to be by-step guidelines for doing collabora- gan a second reading of the reflections, manifested in both the capstone essays tive analysis would help her students creating categories to fit with what the and the online responses during their learn critical reflection (McDonald, students’ comments suggested. In a first semester of teaching. The data Mohr, Dichter, & McDonald, 2007). third reading, she coded each of the did not show, however, that his stu- Sue introduced several protocols from students’ summative comments that dents had engaged in critical reflection, a set compiled by the National School described their perceptions of the effec- challenging assumptions about po- Reform Faculty (http://www.nsrfhar- tiveness of The Consultancy protocol. litical, social, or economic conditions. mony.org), but specifically focused on a protocol called The Consultancy, Findings. Sue’s analysis showed PROTOCOLS because the students reported it was The Consultancy protocol worked the most helpful protocol to them. well for about a third of the 24 Tran- Context and participants. Sue, The Consultancy has several steps: sition to Teaching students. This small in her sixteenth year as a teacher edu- first is writing about a dilemma faced group of students grasped that the pur- cator, conducted this case study at a in the classroom by describing it and pose of the protocol was to complicate large urban university in the Midwest posing an authentic question about their dilemmas, to seek better under- in a Transition to Teaching program it; second is bringing the written di- standing of their problems by think- for graduate students. Before com- lemma and question to a small col- ing from different viewpoints before ing to teacher education, she taught laborative group for discussion; dur- formulating solutions. The other two- high school journalism and English ing this part of the process, the writer thirds of the students went through as well as college writing classes. She answers clarifying questions and then the protocol process with their focus also worked as a school-change coach listens while the rest of the group dis- on solving their problems. They failed for the Coalition of Essential Schools. cusses the dilemma and the question; to appreciate the value of the proto- Sue followed the development of finally, the writer of the dilemma ei- col for deepening critical reflection. critical reflection in a participant group ther responds orally to the group or The students wrote about a variety of 24 graduate students, all transi- in writing regarding the conversation of dilemmas. Six students chose dilem- tioning from other professions. These and questions raised by the dilemma. mas related to student disruptions and students were studying to become The goal is to deepen understanding of misbehaviors. For example, they ex- secondary teachers in social studies, nuances about the dilemma by bring- pressed concerns over how to reduce mathematics, English, Spanish, biol- ing assumptions and additional ques- conflict with students, how to get them ogy, and chemistry. Sue was their in- tions to the forefront of discussion. to be more engaged, how to redirect structor for a 15-week general High them – not surprising, given that all School Methods course during the Data collection and analysis. of the students were concerned about PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION Spring 2011 | PAGE 23 taking over their high school class- find a quick solution to problems of my dilemma--how can I actu- rooms as student teachers within a few and not spend a great deal of time ally steal enough time from the de- weeks. Eleven students focused on cur- pondering alternative outcomes. mands of the curriculum schedule ricular or instructional issues related to create a rigorous and interesting to resources, including students more The students who valued the protocol unit that still covers all of the mate- actively in their learning, giving home- process gained insights into their learn- rial that must be covered in order to work, getting students in Spanish to ing, like this student teaching in a proj- meet the demands of the final exam? speak more often in Spanish, and devel- ect-based New Tech High classroom: oping inquiry-based lessons for science. Other students were frustrated Students who valued the protocol Besides clarifying questions, a num- by the structure of the protocol and indicated the process helped them to ber of thought-provoking probing Sue’s insistence that they follow it suspend judgment. They felt the prob- questions were asked. One ques- exactly; being forced to use a spe- ing questions asked by their peers tion was, “How are students being cific interactive structure was unfa- helped them think more deeply and guided through this process [in- miliar. Students, like this one, felt from different viewpoints during the quiry in science class]?” This ques- the rigidity of the protocol inter- process. They acknowledged that ver- tion made me realize how little rupted the normal flow of interaction: balizing and writing about the dilem- guidance or facilitation actually oc- mas helped them clarify the questions curs. While teachers do make sure I understand the purpose of this ex- and concerns underlying the dilemmas. students read the entry document ercise, to develop the skills to exam- One student observed: to the project, there is never a real ine an issue from multiple perspec- discussion in the class that would tives and create a reflective analysis I found it most difficult during our invite student questions. This ques- regarding issues…The rigidity of the groups in seminar not to try to solve tion has made me ask myself, “What protocol actually prevents the ap- the dilemmas people were having does it mean to facilitate or guide propriate give-and-take that I find outright or even offer suggestions learning?” I know the short answer so valuable in examining an issue. immediately. I do see that by avoid- is “coach the students along.” But I’m fairly certain that none of the ing this, we were forced to spend what does it literally mean? What dilemma presenters found any ma- more time contemplating the cir- does this physically look like in the jor question that broke open a per- cumstances of our situations and classroom? Is what my mentor is spective they hadn’t had previously. possible explanations aside from doing now facilitation? Does facili- our initial judgments. Clarifying tation mean that direct teacher in- The students’ mixed responses to the questions obviously helped each of struction is minimized, all activities use of The Consultancy protocol suggest us provide/gain more details about are voluntary, rules are abolished, that it was a challenging cognitive task situations to form better probing and other forms of instructional for the preservice teachers. Because it questions. We did catch a few ques- experience (besides the computer) is a collaborative learning process, the tions that were solutions in disguise, are removed?...In summary, I do protocol’s potential went unrealized and many times were able to clarify not think that facilitation means when students did not go deep enough when, where, how, and who answers. teachers are passive and wait for in examining assumptions, asking students to come to them with ques- probing and clarifying questions, or Another student wrote: tions or seeking help. Sometimes suspending the rush to a solution. being a good teacher means using Not having a concrete answer to structure and scaffolding so that DILEMAS potential probing questions indi- students can work independently. Context and participants. cates to me that more thoughtful Beth’s case study was conducted at insight is necessary to develop a Students who did not value the proto- the same Midwestern urban univer- broader understanding of my di- col saw little need for multiple perspec- sity as Case Two, where she has been a lemma. On the other hand, produc- tives when reflecting on dilemmas. The faculty member for fifteen years. Beth ing clarifying and probing ques- “utility” factor was strong. Like this stu- studied the students’ development of tions for my peers helps me better dent, they wanted pragmatic solutions: critical reflection in the undergradu- understand this process of think- ate program called Learning to Teach/ ing. By being actively involved with Well, I hate to say I told me so, but… Teaching to Learn. Prior to her work my group members’ dilemmas, I the probing questions that were at the university, she was an elemen- will develop a more routine man- supposed to broaden my perspec- tary teacher and literacy consultant ner of thinking that, hopefully, will tive were about as useful as lectur- for the state Department of Education. lead to deeper understandings. . .It ing my cats as to why they shouldn’t The participants were 51 under- is difficult not to give out recom- fight…[The discussion and ques- graduate students ranging from the mendations. . .It is in our nature to tions] still don’t drive to the heart ages of 20 to 45 who were in their PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION Spring 2011 | PAGE 24 third-semester of a four semester pro- in social and cultural interactions in the the evidence of transformation in the gram (60 credit hours) to prepare them classroom and raise questions of equity students’ thinking. Were they able to as urban elementary teachers. In this and fairness in schools (Cranton, 2006). use the multiple critical lenses intro- program, students worked in cohorts Beth asked the students to complete duced in their coursework to see their of about 25-30 students that were a written reflection about a critical in- teaching situations from varied and en- each hosted by partnership schools in cident, or dilemma in their teaching lightening perspectives? Did the criti- the city. The students had class two practice. This assignment was given cal reflection assignment enable them days a week on campus the first two to students at the end of the semester to arrive at informed guiding principles semesters of the program and spent as they finished their first eight weeks for their future teaching experiences? a half-day doing field work in mentor of student teaching in an urban class- About three-fourths (n=38) of the teachers’ classrooms. During the third room. The students were asked to “critical incidences” were stories of and fourth semesters, students met for identify one critical incident or school children with issues that disrupted classes in the schools, observing class- practice that troubled them. Students their learning. Some of these stories rooms leading up to student teaching. described the incident or practice and were about resistant learners who let During these last two semesters of the their emotional response to it. Students everyone know, often quite loudly, that program, the students were in class were then asked to deconstruct, to look the lessons “sucked” or that the preser- two days a week for six weeks, complet- again, with various critical lenses in- vice teachers were “racists”. Another ing two intensive courses. Afterwards cluding looking for their own biases and teacher told about the day her kinder- they worked as student teachers every assumptions rooted in their own expe- garten student went to visit his sister day for eight weeks. At the end of the riences and cultural background. Simi- in third grade instead of getting on the semester, they reconnected with their larly, students were encouraged to look bus; another had to deal with a boy peers and college instructors to re- from the perspectives of authors and who stole her laptop computer. Several view and reflect on their experiences. constructs discussed in class, includ- told stories about children with special Beth taught a literacy methods class ing discourses of power and privilege, learning needs, unmet physical and to these third-semester students while inclusion and deficit views of learners, emotional needs, or serious problems a co-instructor taught special educa- gender, and socio-economic status. Fi- at home. All of these stories explored tion methods. She also worked with a nally, the students were asked to gen- the ways that the particular school con- school coach who supported students erate other possible ways the dilemmas text either worked in support of the during student teaching. The students might have been resolved, as well as children and the student teachers or were all placed in the local urban some guiding principles for themselves. not. In most cases, the interns did not school district or the adjacent districts find the level of support they felt was with very similar demographics as Data collection and analysis. necessary and this led to final state- those detailed in Case Two. For more The data set for analysis consisted of 51 ments about the need for urban teach- than half the urban university students, critical reflection assignments from two ers to exhibit agency in school contexts. these schools differed significantly different cohorts of students, ranging The remaining one-fourth of the from the rural or suburban schools from 8-15 pages in length. Beth coded critical incidences were written about the students attended themselves. these reflections by looking at the na- teachers who were seen as harsh or ture of the critical incidences, the suc- unsupportive in their dealings with Teaching methods. Beth fo- cess of the students in recognizing their particular children. The interns saw cused on the use of dilemmas to de- own biases and assumptions, and their teachers isolate or ignore certain chil- velop students’ capacity to do critical connections to critical perspectives dren or punish children for things be- reflection. Dilemmas, or “disorienting read and discussed as part of the class yond their control. One intern wrote events,” are thought-provoking criti- and program (Creswell, 2006). As she about the teacher’s slowness to involve cal incidents that leave students uncer- did the coding, Beth also jotted obser- the parents of a child who needed more tain about what they have experienced vations and interesting juxtapositions support and marveled at the change or how they should respond. Research and noted changes in students’ abil- that took place once the parents were on adult learning (Mezirow, 2000) has ity to do critical reflection. As themes included in the situation; another criti- shown that adults are most apt to learn emerged, Beth went back to the reflec- cal incidence story was about the use/ something new when they have an ex- tions to pull together student com- misuse of time during the school day. perience that pushes them out of their ments related to the themes for coding, Overall, these critical reflection as- comfort zone. Teachers who wrestle providing a multilayered view of how signments enabled interns to see the with understanding dilemmas are these themes played out in the data. value of looking for their own biases more likely to make changes in their and assumptions. One student wrote: practices (Brookfield, 2006). The key Findings. The analysis of these to critical reflection on dilemmas is the critical reflections was focused on un- Looking back, I do not feel that my possession of a set of lenses that can ex- derstanding what the students explored assumptions were valid. I would pose the role power and privilege play as critical incidences or dilemmas and describe them as being more of PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION Spring 2011 | PAGE 25 stereotypes…Writing reflections and the structure of the programs. has made me aware of the assump- One guiding principle for me is for- Keeping in mind the differences in tions and biases one makes. It is giveness. I forgave [my student] the case studies and the idea that any easy to do, but as a future educa- for taking my computer and re- story we tell based on these case stud- tor I need to take a step back and membered that he was just a little ies is a partial one, we do see evidence not judge. I need to evaluate the boy…I also forgave myself. I’d as- that the instructional strategies used situation in more depth by look- sumed that because [my student] to teach critical reflection in each case ing at it from multiple perspectives. and I shared ethnicity that his fam- favorably impacted student learning. ily taught him the same things my In Case Three, the critical reflection as- Students also saw that their first family taught me…but the child signment enabled all but one student assessments of the learners under their made a mistake indicating a need to successfully focus on a dilemma tutelage needed to be more thoughtful. for help and intervention from that made fertile ground for examin- They showed that they were learning to the adults around him. I learned ing their own cultural backgrounds, make adjustments based on individual the importance of not hesitating biases, and assumptions. The students learners. to intervene on a child’s behalf. used the questions in the assignment to guide their deconstruction of a trou- The assumption that this student The Critical Reflection assignment bling situation, examining it through was frustrated and incapable of included a series of questions that lenses such as discourses of power completing the assignment was scaffolded the critical reflection of the and privilege, inclusion, gender differ- completely wrong. It was clearly students and the evidence showed that ences, language background, social sta- an instructional design error. The many were engaged in learning with tus, and school climate. These students directions were not written clearly and from the children in their care. also grew in terms of their own agency enough for the student to under- But the assignments also revealed how as urban teachers by generating their stand…Although these instruc- far the students had to go to unseat own guiding principle for their teach- tions were clear enough for other their own biases and assumptions, ing in the future. They moved from students, they were not clear for begging the question of whether the being unconscious to conscious about this student…Once I explained assignment really impacted their the dysfunction of many status quo the assignment in a different way, embedded beliefs. Because there was practices in urban elementary schools. he was able to complete it rather no sharing of the reflections or any In Case Two, Sue’s students em- quickly. This also has to do with dialoguing with others in the schools braced the collaborative nature of the the differences in children. Not or in their cohorts, it seems as if the protocol discussions easily. They val- every child is going to under- assignment may well have been just ued learning from each other and grew stand one thing in the same way. one more task to check off their list. in their commitment to one another as members of a cohort group. How- The critical reflection assignment DISCUSSION ever, only about a third of the students asked the interns to generate at least reached more complex questioning and This collaborative inquiry provides one principle that would guide their discussion. The students struggled with a data-driven view of methods used teaching going forward from their first the idea of asking enough probing ques- to teach critical reflection in three dif- student teaching experience. These tions to complicate teaching dilemmas. ferent urban teacher education pro- principles ranged in nature from They were more comfortable offering grams. Although the three cases are having patience with difficult children solutions, and the structured proto- not necessarily parallel in terms of to holding themselves to professional col process of taking deliberate steps data collection and analysis, from our standards. Over half of these principles as a group to better understand the perspective, this is not a shortcoming, emphasized the importance of problems seemed inefficient to some. but rather an expected outcome of col- communication and community. For The MAT students in Case One left laborative inquiry. These cases repre- example, one student wrote: their program with a strong sense of sent the pursuit of personal questions the importance of reflection as an in- tackled according to personal inten- The guiding principle I have brought tegral part of teaching and their devel- tions. They are not comparative in the from the situation is I need to rec- opment as professionals. They valued sense that they lead to a singular con- ognize, validate, and discuss each asking questions as part of the ongo- clusion about instructional strategies student’s feelings and reactions in ing process of staying focused on stu- for teaching critical reflection. Rather order for myself and the student to dents and their learning. They were they provide multiple perspectives reach a better understanding and collaborative even to the point of in- that originate from the close study of resolution. The challenging part cluding the students in their reflec- three instructional strategies imple- will be to make it clear I am lis- tive processes. But their reflections mented in programs which differed tening, and trying to understand. did not have a strong critical edge to in many ways, including the students them. In Randy’s findings, we did not involved, the public school contexts, Another student reflected: see a strong focus on critical perspec- PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION Spring 2011 | PAGE 26 tives that interrupted the status quo. out more about the development of stu- and practicing collaborative inquiry. These varied results provided us dents at the end of these two programs. All three of these learning engagements with insights and questions. Beth real- We also realized that it was not easy require the use of probing questions. ized that her critical reflection assign- to see a direct relationship between Dilemmas are useful because they can ment for the undergraduates lacked any Randy’s focus on probing questions lead new teachers to seek understand- collaborative component and failed to and the development of his students, ing before they impose solutions. These teach reflection as a social process. She because there were many other strat- troubling experiences are useful in get- now has her students participating in egies at work in the program. In large ting students to see the complexity in a protocol with their critical reflection part, Randy’s students seemed to ben- urban school experiences by holding up assignments during the last week of the efit most from doing iterations of col- multiple critical lenses. Seeing more of semester and she has added readings laborative knowledge work guided by the systems of oppression at work can and discussions of “whiteness” and in- his model of collaborative inquiry. In enable new teachers to recognize that stitutionalized racism (Howard, 2006) contrast, Case Two focused more spe- the failure of learners to thrive is not into the class curriculum. Sue decided cifically on the protocol and provided a a personal shortcoming of the student that she needed do more to help stu- view of uneven development, and Case and his or her family, but attributable dents develop as critical reflectors. She Three showed that the critical reflec- to a set of beliefs and practices that can is now having students do more back- tion assignment engaged students at be changed with enough push back or ground reading to develop their critical one point in time, but neither of these side-stepped with enough ingenuity. lenses and asking students to practice two cases provided clear views of what Structured protocols put more heads suspending judgment and examine is- this meant in terms of students’ over- at the table and help students to expe- sues from multiple perspectives be- all development as critical reflectors. rience group deliberations aimed at fore attempting protocols. Randy has We were left asking, what does it mean better understanding and generating been giving thought to how to make when students lag in this area part-way alternatives that are not obvious. They collaborative inquiry a more recogniz- through a program? What about the are not common experiences prior to able part of his program and how to students who do not willingly engage teacher education and students need get students to go deeper in challeng- in critical reflection? What about the background in taking multiple perspec- ing assumptions. He has added differ- students who are not yet intellectually tives and asking probing questions to ent diversity readings and activities ready to think in such complex ways? make them work. But when they work, to help his graduate students exam- Are students just saying what they know they strengthen the power of a com- ine and challenge power structures. we want to hear? What would count as munity to interrupt the status quo. He has also changed their summer viable measures of the capacity to reflect They also add a measure of rigor and practicum experience to include two critically? Can we expect all preservice discipline to the collaborative work. weeks working in urban middle schools teachers to become critical reflectors? We see collaborative inquiry as a where they can test out assumptions deliberate process of going between about race and poverty specifically. IMPLICATIONS personal knowledge and dialogue with When we first reviewed the findings, peers. It is context-based, making it rel- This study is pushing us as urban we were impressed with Randy’s stu- evant and authentic. It spirals, with each educators to work toward a better defi- dent responses. His findings showed iteration laying the groundwork for the nition of what it means to do critical that his students had taken on identi- next. In the professional development reflection. The three of us have deep- ties as reflective practitioners and val- realm, we see collaborative inquiry as seated understanding and capacity to ued collaborative inquiry. Since this the basis for practices like Professional prepare reflective practitioners, but we was a goal we all shared for our stu- Learning Communities (DuFour, Du- have much to learn about how to pre- dents, it was gratifying to see these out- four, Eaker, & Many, 2006) or Inquiry pare critical reflective practitioners. comes. As we gave this more thought, for Equity (Malarkey, 2005) groups. Our own internalized models for teach- we also realized that his MAT program Urban schools need more of this com- ing and professional development may at a small college operated in a signifi- mitment to creating local solutions, not reflect the complexity of multiple cantly different way than the two teach- and immersing preservice teachers in critical perspectives or critiques of the er education programs at the large uni- the process is good preparation. As Sue status quo. We suspect we are not alone versity. He taught and supervised the summed it up, “You can’t be critically in needing better and more explicit same students for four semesters and reflective absent a collaborative model.” frameworks for creating learning com- his data set included reflections from munities with the agency to get beyond the end of the program, rather than CONCLUSION the barriers to equitable education. one class assignment like Cases Two Based on this shared inquiry, we This collaborative inquiry into criti- and Three. Neither Sue nor Beth could can recommend three strong supports cal reflection is a humble beginning, say whether students achieved this to the development of critical reflec- but it has been a productive cycle. We threshold of development at the end of tion—working with dilemmas, follow- understand our teaching, our students’ their programs. It would be interesting ing structured discussion protocols, learning, and the challenges of critical to conduct a follow-up inquiry to find PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION Spring 2011 | PAGE 27 reflection better. We hope our cases are Beth Berghoff is Chair of Graduate research interests are content area illuminating to other teacher educators Programs and Associate Professor literacy, school reform, and teacher struggling with these same issues, even of Literacy, Culture and Language research. A former high school though we know they tell a partial story. Education at Indiana University journalism advisor and English It is clear to us that critical reflection is Purdue University Indianapolis teacher, she has spent 40 years a step beyond reflective practice. Being (IUPUI). Her research interests focused on secondary education. critical is a stance that involves inter- include multiliteracies, school nalized habits of seeing the complexity reform, and urban education. She has Randy Wisehart earned his Ph. D. of urban schools, seeing one’s own as- publications in English Education, The in Education from Capella University. sumptions and identity, and seeing the Journal of Urban Learning, Teaching, A former secondary English teacher, need for collaborative knowledge mak- and Research, and Language Arts. teacher leader, and assistant principal, ing practice that interrupts the dysfunc- he is currently the director of Graduate tional and generates uncommon solu- Sue Blackwell earned her Ph.D. in Programs in Education at Earlham tions. Equipped with this stance, new Language Education from Indiana College. His research interests are urban teachers are less likely to be co- University with an emphasis in primarily in the areas of professional opted by the status quo and more likely Composition and Rhetoric. 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