ERIC EJ914889: Consciousness-Raising and Prepositions

2010·0.14 MB·English

by  ERIC

Monica Hendricks
Consciousness-Raising and
Prepositions
For a variety of reasons, learning are used to designate expressions of
English prepositions is noto- time. However, these very same prep-
riously difficult and a slow, ositions also designate expressions
gradual process for English as a Sec- of place and location, which often
ond Language (ESL) students. To makes the selection of a preposition a
begin, English prepositions typically matter of guesswork. The uncertainty
are short, single-syllable or two-syl- about what preposition to use even
lable words that are seldom stressed extends to differences within British
when speaking and therefore often not and American English. For example,
articulated clearly or heard distinctly. in British (and South African) English
Another problem is that prepositions it is common to speak of “filling in a
are often conceptually different from form,” while American English speaks
one language to the next, and direct of “filling out a form.” The problem
translation cannot be relied on. For is further exacerbated by regional or
example, in English “we walk in the social varieties of English that use
rain,” whereas in French we “walk prepositions in idiosyncratic ways.
under the rain (marcher sous la pluie).” Then there are those unhelpful (even
Both formulations seem to make the archaic) rules about prepositions that
same intrinsic sense; however, it would continue to hold sway, such as the
strike most English speakers as odd to rule about not ending a sentence with
say that we walk under the rain! This a preposition. As Winston Churchill
lack of correspondence means that a tellingly joked, “The rule which for-
one-to-one translation will produce an bids ending a sentence with a preposi-
ungrammatical sentence. tion is the kind of nonsense up with
These difficulties are compound- which I will not put.”
ed by the loose grammatical rules The nature of prepositions obliges
governing the use of English prepo- ESL students to rely on wide reading,
sitions. For example, one rule states memorization, and dictionaries to
that the prepositions at, on, and in learn them. One way to help students
24 2010 Number 2 | E n g l i s h TE a c h i n g F o r u m
is to introduce consciousness-raising, a tech-
English Sentence Xhosa Sentence
nique that focuses attention on correct gram-
matical forms by highlighting or emphasizing
I’m going to school. Ndiya esikolweni.
them in some way. According to Ellis (1997),
noticing a grammatical feature is a necessary
I left it on your table. Ndayishiya etafileni yakho.
and fundamental pre-condition for learn-
ing it. Unlike formal grammar instruction, There is no money in your wallet. Akukho mali esipanjini sakho.
consciousness-raising does not require the
learner “to verbalize the rules he has learnt” Zola is coming from the river now. UZola usuka emlanjeni ngoku.
(Ellis 1985, 244), but instead alerts learners
to a particular grammatical feature. There will be visitors at my home Kuzakubakho indwendwe ekhaya
In a review of research into consciousness- tomorrow. ngomso.
raising, Sugiharto (2006) considered gram-
Figure 1: Expressing prepositions in English and Xhosa
matical features such as transitive and intran-
sitive verbs, direct and indirect objects, and
subject-verb agreement, but not prepositions. This again illustrates how distinct preposi-
There is an apparent need for consciousness- tions are from one language to the next and
raising activities for prepositions, and this underscores the need for a successful method
article will describe how I used the technique to teach them.
to promote correct usage of English preposi-
The ACE instructional context
tions in an Advanced Certificate in Education
(ACE) course for secondary school ESL teach- Given the limited reading resources in
ers in South Africa. many rural Eastern Cape homes and schools
(Nelson Mandela Foundation 2005), learners
English and Xhosa prepositions depend heavily on their teachers as a direct
Although English is taught as a second source of English and successful teaching
language in most South African schools, it approaches. However, in spite of a new cur-
is in fact more of a foreign language in most riculum introduced in 1998 (Department
rural areas (Setati et al. 2002). Xhosa is the of Education of South Africa 1997a, 1997b,
overwhelmingly dominant home language in 1997c, and 2002), teachers continue to strug-
the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, gle with low levels of conceptual knowledge
spoken by 83.4 percent of the population, in their subjects (Fleisch 2008). Accordingly,
while English trails far behind as the home a two-year teacher education course like the
language of only 3.6 percent (Statistics South ACE addresses the dual challenge of develop-
Africa 2003). Since my current ACE course ing language teachers’ pedagogical skills as
participants are mainly Xhosa-speaking ESL well as their language proficiency. Therefore,
teachers from rural districts in the Eastern teacher-trainees learn the what—the core lan-
Cape, it is imperative that they provide an guage skills of listening, speaking, reading,
accurate, proficient model of spoken and writ- writing, and grammar and related aspects of
ten English for their students. linguistic theory such as genre and critical
Predictably, Xhosa speakers find that their language awareness, and the how—practical
native language offers little direct insight on and procedural classroom teaching methodol-
how to use English prepositions correctly. ogy, including sequence and pacing of lessons
Unlike English, which has a large number of and an understanding of learning theory and
individual prepositions, Xhosa has no prepo- assessment.
sitions as separate words. Xhosa instead uses The ACE course follows the participa-
locatives and formatives, which are prefixes and tory, interactive, learner-centered approach
suffixes that convey meaning and are attached that the trainees will use with their own
to nouns (Zotwana 1994). For example, students. Nevertheless, as with many schools
Figure 1 illustrates how five English preposi- worldwide, we have to deal with inadequate
tions are expressed with the Xhosa prefix (e–) materials and resources. For example, while a
and suffix (–ni). (Thanks to my colleague, high-level grammar textbook like Quirk et al.
Deyi Mbelani, for his help with these Xhosa (1985) devotes a reasonable number of pages
examples.) (61 out of 1779) to discussing prepositions,
E n g l i s h TE a c h i n g F o r u m | Number 2 2010 25
three South African high school textbooks teacher is provided with a copy of a grammar
currently in use mention prepositions only resource such as Collins Cobuild Intermedi-
as one of the parts of speech (Angelil-Carter, ate English Grammar. In addition, teachers
Bangeni, and Garwen 2006; Angelil-Carter et use additional Internet resources such as the
al. 2005) or as constituents of phrasal verbs following to explore grammar explanations,
(Grant et al. 2005). The fill-in-the-missing- examples, and exercises, including the use of
preposition exercises that were common in prepositions:
earlier years are absent. However, since prepo- • http://grammartips.homestead.com/
sitions are so indispensable to communica- index.html
tion, and their misuse often distorts mean- • www.chompchomp.com/menu.htm
ing, the requirement for correct prepositional
A consciousness-raising task for
usage is essential, especially when writing or
prepositions
speaking in academic contexts or describing
abstract relations in more formal contexts. Despite a broad focus on grammar, the
Fortunately, teachers can draw on alterna- ACE course initially treated prepositions
tive resources and methods to teach preposi- with benign neglect. Only minimal corrective
tions and other grammatical components feedback was provided when students made
of English. In order to develop the train- preposition errors in their oral presentations
ees’ grammatical knowledge, the ACE course and written assignments, and prepositions
bases instruction on Grammatical Knowl- were not a focus of follow-up work. How-
edge for Teachers (Department for Children, ever, the number and range of preposition
Schools and Families 2010), which can be errors in an essay about teachers’ professional
found online. Drawing on the genre approach responsibilities alerted me to the need for a
(Martin 1989; Gibbons 2002), the course consciousness-raising task. To gather material
links grammar to extensive writing and explic- for the task, I reviewed student-teacher essays
itly teaches the structure of various genres on the topic of professional responsibility and
essential to school literacy, including explana- identified 14 sentences that contained prepo-
tion, procedure, report, and argument. Each sition errors, which are listed in Figure 2.
1. As a role model I refrain to any misconduct.
2. I will make sure that they are transported by a roadworthy vehicle when we are in educa-
tional excursions.
3. I must update parents with the well-being and progress of their children.
4. I am sure if we can focus to the policy, then learners can do the same.
5. I will expose learners more on reading and speaking.
6. Learners will know exactly what is expected on them.
7. I will form support groups with other teachers in order to make sure that we keep abreast
with developments.
8. I commit myself in having a full understanding of the principles of the curriculum.
9. Teachers should convince the community that they believe and depend to them.
10. This will result to everyone owning the code of conduct.
11. I promise never to bring my profession under disrepute.
12. Our department is very lenient to teachers who misbehave.
13. I will try to discuss the issue informally at a person-to-person basis.
14. Some teachers are not familiar to the curriculum.
Figure 2: Fourteen sentences with preposition errors
26 2010 Number 2 | E n g l i s h TE a c h i n g F o r u m
I converted this list into a wall-chart by an anonymous, non-threatening way for bet-
printing the 14 sentences in a large font on ter students to assist their peers in correcting
a piece of paper. I also included some tack errors.
adhesive and an envelope that contained An alternate way to conduct this
20 prepositions written on small squares of activity is to divide the sentences among
pink paper. At the start of the class I took five several groups. After each group corrects their
minutes to explain to the teachers that each sentences the whole class discusses all the
sentence contained at least one preposition sentences and the teacher elicits feedback
error, which they needed to identify and cor- about the prepositions.
rect by choosing among the 20 prepositions
Conclusion
and pasting the correct pink square over the
error. To increase the difficulty of the task, I If ESL teachers are to be good models of
included six extra prepositions on the list. As English speakers, teacher trainer courses need
the students stuck new prepositions in place, I to focus not only on knowledge of English
marked the correct choices with a red tick and pedagogy, but also on the ability of teachers
removed any incorrect options. to identify, self-correct, and ultimately reduce
To my delight, teachers gathered in front their own English errors. Among all the chal-
of the preposition chart and corrected the sen- lenges of mastering English grammar, the
tences. The chart became abuzz with activity appropriate use of prepositions is one of the
as students in pairs and small groups discussed most difficult. This consciousness-raising task
was valuable because it was interesting to the
the errors and different preposition options.
trainees and made them aware of a neglected
In a short time the teachers had successfully
area of grammar in an interactive setting
corrected all the mistakes, thanks in large part
where they were able to determine correct
to the most proficient English speakers. This
prepositional forms by negotiating meaning.
conforms to research indicating that grammar
An added benefit of this consciousness-raising
consciousness-raising is most effective with
task is that the teachers learned how to expand
high intermediate level learners (Mohamed
their repertoire of activities in their own class-
2004). (See the Appendix for the 14 correct
rooms, to teach not only prepositions but also
prepositions and the list of 20 prepositions
other aspects of grammar.
provided as options.)
What was the consciousness-raising value
References
of this task? Teachers certainly noticed prepo-
Angelil-Carter, S., B. Bangeni, L. Czerniewicz, R.
sitions as an important part of speech, focused
Kaschula, J. Norton, and L. Thesen. 2005. Keys
on the error, and worked collaboratively to to English: Grade 10. Sandton, South Africa:
discover the correct options. The first step, Heinemann.
picking out the prepositions in the sentences, Angelil-Carter, S., B. Bangeni, and M. Garwen.
2006. Keys to English: Grade 12. Sandton, South
was the easy part of the task. The learning
Africa: Heinemann.
that took place occurred in the second step— Department for Children, Schools and Families.
choosing the correct options. While deciding 2010. The national strategies: Grammatical
on the correct option, teachers debated the knowledge for teachers. Reading, UK: Depart-
ment for Children, Schools and Families.
rules and conventions of preposition usage,
http://nationalstrategies.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/
thereby sharpening their conscious, explic-
node/164564.
it understanding of prepositions. The chart Department of Education of South Africa. 1997a.
stayed on the wall for some time, allowing Foundation Phase Policy Document: Grade R-3.
students to reflect on the corrected sentences Pretoria: Department of Education of South
Africa.
and compare them with their own usage of
——. 1997b. Intermediate Phase Policy Document:
prepositions.
Grades 4–6. Pretoria: Department of Education
One limitation to this exercise is that the of South Africa.
fast learners, and probably the most profi- ——. 1997c. Senior Phase Policy Document: Grades
cient English speakers, did most of the work. 7–9. Pretoria: Department of Education of
South Africa.
However, because many of the sentences on
——. 2002. Revised National Curriculum Statement
the chart came from the writing of students for Grades R–9: Languages. Pretoria: Department
with weaker English skills, the task provided of Education of South Africa.
E n g l i s h TE a c h i n g F o r u m | Number 2 2010 27
Ellis, R. 1985. Understanding second language acqui- Setati, M., J. Adler, Y. Reed, and A. Bapoo. 2002.
sition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Code-switching and other language practices
–––. 1997. SLA research and language teaching. in mathematics, science and English language
Oxford: Oxford University Press. classrooms in South Africa. In Challenges of
Fleisch, B. 2008. Primary education in crisis: Why teacher development: An investigation of take-up
South African schoolchildren underachieve in read- in South Africa, ed. J. Adler and Y. Reed, 72–93.
ing and mathematics. Cape Town, South Africa: Pretoria, South Africa: Van Schaik.
Juta. Statistics South Africa. 2003. Census 2001: Census
Gibbons, P. 2002. Scaffolding language, scaffolding in brief. Pretoria. South Africa: Statistics South
learning: Teaching second language learners in Africa.
the mainstream classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Sugiharto, S. 2006. Grammar consciousness-rais-
Heinemann. ing: Research, theory and application. Indone-
Grant, N., A. Mawasha, P. Brennan, J. Mlotshwa, sian JELT 2 (2): 140–48.
and M. Ralenala. 2005. Advance with English: Zotwana, S. Z. 1994. Xhosa in context. Cape Town,
Grade 10. Cape Town, South Africa: Maskew South Africa: Vlaeberg.
Miller Longman.
Martin, J. R. 1989. Factual writing: Exploring and
challenging social reality. 2nd edition. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Mohamed, N. 2004. Consciousness-raising tasks: A Monica Hendricks is the Alan Macintosh
learner perspective. ELT Journal 58 (3): 228–37. Research Fellow at the Institute for the
Nelson Mandela Foundation. 2005. Emerging
Study of English in Africa, Rhodes
voices: A report on education in South African
University, South Africa. She teaches a
rural communities. Cape Town: Human Sciences
course for teachers of English as an
Research Council.
additional language. Her research interests
Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, and J. Svart-
vik. 1985. A comprehensive grammar of the Eng- are children’s classroom writing and
lish language. London: Longman. teachers’ literacy practices.
28 2010 Number 2 | E n g l i s h TE a c h i n g F o r u m
Consciousness-Raising Task
to Correct Preposition Errors
Consciousness-Raising and Prepositions • Monica Hendricks
Key: Fourteen Sentences with Correct Prepositions
1. As a role model I refrain from any misconduct.
2. I will make sure that they are transported in a roadworthy vehicle when
we are on educational excursions.
3. I must update parents about the well-being and progress of their
children.
4. I’m sure if we can focus on the policy, then learners can do the same.
5. I will expose learners more to reading and speaking.
6. Learners will know exactly what is expected of them.
7. I will form support groups with other teachers in order to make sure
that we keep abreast of developments.
8. I commit myself to having a full understanding of the principles of the
curriculum.
9. Teachers should convince the community that they believe and depend
on them.
10. This will result in everyone owning the code of conduct.
11. I promise never to bring my profession into disrepute.
12. Our department is very lenient with teachers who misbehave.
13. I will try to discuss the issue informally on a person-to-person basis.
14. Some teachers are not familiar with the curriculum.
List of Twenty Preposition Options
with into by in
beside in of on
from on to behind
at to on with
on of about under
E n g l i s h TE a c h i n g F o r u m | Number 2 2010 29