ERIC EJ899364: The Effectiveness of Using a Pocket PC as a Video Modeling and Feedback Device for Individuals with Developmental Disabilities in Vocational Settings

2007·0.39 MB·English

by  ERIC

Fall 2007, Vol.4, Num. 1

The Effectiveness of Using a Pocket PC as a Video Modeling and
Feedback Device for Individuals with Developmental Disabilities
in Vocational Settings

Toni Van Laarhoven
Northern Illinois University

Traci Van Laarhoven-Myers
Waubonsie Valley High School

Leslie M. Zurita
Northern Illinois University

Abstract: This study evaluated the Vocational programming and support for
effectiveness of using a pocket PC to teach two individuals with developmental disabilities in
adolescents with mild and moderate cognitive competitive employment settings has received
impairments vocational tasks in competitive, much attention in the last two decades (Lancioni,
community-based settings. Participants were O’Reilly, Speedhouse, Furniss, & Cunha, 2000).
taught three different tasks in their respective The goal of vocational programming is to assist
work sites through video rehearsal and video individuals with performing their job-related
feedback strategies. Video files were presented tasks as independently as possible so that they
on a pocket PC prior to task engagement and can have the means to support themselves in
following repeated errors (video feedback). order to lead productive and self-sufficient lives.
Effectiveness of the video-based strategies and Fortunately, there has been a shift away from the
the utility of the handheld device were evaluated assumption that individuals with developmental
using a multiple probe design across tasks and disabilities will work in sheltered employment
participants. Outcomes of the study indicate that settings and more attention and effort has been
the introduction of the video-based procedures placed on supporting individuals in community-
was associated with significant increases in based vocational settings (Davies, Stock, &
independent responding and participants met Wehmeyer, 2002a). As a result, much of the
criterion on all three tasks within 3-7 sessions latest research relating to vocational
(M=5 sessions). Although there were large programming has focused on strategies for
changes in the level of data once the video-based increasing independence in job-related tasks.
materials were presented, outcomes are Because there has been a shift from sheltered to
somewhat tempered by the fact that some of the community-based settings, it is increasingly
baselines for each participant were slightly important to utilize self-management strategies
ascending prior to the introduction of the that will promote task completion while reducing
independent variable. reliance on outside staff or job coaches (Agran,
1997).
Keywords: Video technology, Handheld
computers, Developmental disabilities, To promote independent work-related behaviors
Vocational training and to decrease reliance on staff, several
researchers have investigated the effectiveness of
using supports and prompts such as picture cards
and/or booklets, auditory prompts delivered
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electronic devices, and visual and auditory were no differences between the two types of
prompts delivered on handheld devices to recordings, both types of auditory prompts
promote self-directed work behaviors. resulted in a significant increase in the number of
independent task changes made by participants.
Several researchers have investigated the use of In addition, the results generalized to other
pictures to encourage self-directed task initiation settings without additional training.
and completion (Cihak, Alberto, Kessler, &
Taber, 2004; Copeland & Hughes, 2000; Fisher, Recently, many researchers have combined both
1984; Martin, Mithaug, & Burger, 1990; Martin, visual and auditory prompting systems (i.e.,
Mithaug, & Frazier, 1992; Wacker & Berg, 1983). photos and auditory cues) delivered on handheld
For example, Copeland and Hughes used a two- devices to investigate their utility in promoting
part picture prompt strategy to teach two high independent responding among individuals with
school students with severe disabilities to developmental disabilities in vocational settings
complete work-related skills (i.e., cleaning faculty (Davies, Stock, & Wehmeyer, 2002a; Lancioni,
dining room tables and sweeping; cleaning O’Reilly, Seedhouse, Furniss, & Cuhna, 2000;
windows and a mirror in hallways of a hotel). Riffel et al., 2005). Davies et al. conducted a pilot
The picture prompt strategy involved teaching study to evaluate the effectiveness of a software
participants to touch a picture to initiate a task program called the Visual Assistant (VA), which
and then turn a page in a booklet to indicate task was loaded on a palm-top computer. The VA
completion. Results indicated that once presented step-by-step pictures of task sequences
participants acquired the picture prompt strategy, along with audio instructions on the computer to
their independent task initiations (associated with prompt responses. Ten individuals with
picture touching) increased; however, task intellectual impairments participated in the study
completion (which was associated with page and were taught two vocational tasks that
turning) increased for only one of the included a pizza box assembly task and a
participants. In a similar study, Wacker and Berg software-packaging task. Participants received
used a combination of demonstration, error training with the VA and were then given a
correction, and praise to teach five individuals verbal overview of the tasks as well as
with moderate to severe disabilities to turn pages demonstrations prior to task engagement. They
in a picture booklet to put together pieces of two were then asked to perform each task twice, once
different vocational assembly units (i.e., a black with the VA and once without. Results indicated
valve and circuit board). Once participants improved accuracy and task independence when
acquired the skills, the investigators withdrew all participants used the VA as opposed to when
training components except the picture cues and they did not. Riffel et al. extended the research
found that the participants generalized their on the use of the VA by teaching instructors to
picture cue usage to two additional assembly use the device to assist four students with mild to
tasks. moderate intellectual disabilities to perform tasks
such as table setting, rolling silverware, and
While picture prompts have been effective for laundry tasks. Results indicated that students
prompting independent responding, others have increased the percentage of steps completed
turned to technology using auditory prompting independently while also reducing prompts from
devices to support individuals in employment instructors when the VA was used. In addition,
settings. For example, Taber, Alberto, and participants appeared to prefer the device over
Frederick (1998) used a self-operated auditory instructor assistance as they increasingly self-
prompting device to teach 5 students with selected the VA to assist them in completing the
moderate disabilities to independently transition task rather than requesting assistance from
from completed vocational tasks to other teachers.
vocational tasks. They compared single- and
multiple-word recordings, and although there
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Similarly, Lancioni et al. (2000) conducted two individuals without disabilities, which makes their
studies that also investigated the effectiveness of use socially acceptable. Although handheld
using a palm-based computer system for teaching devices appear to be useful for instructing
vocational tasks to individuals with severe individuals with disabilities, research to date has
developmental disabilities. In the first focused primarily on the presentation of photos,
experiment, the authors compared the auditory prompts, and cueing systems (vibration
effectiveness of a palm-top computer that or alarms) with these devices. To our knowledge,
presented line drawings (in conjunction with a there has not been any research conducted on
special auditory device or vibratory mechanism the use of video-based materials presented on
placed under participants’ belts) with a card handheld devices to teach skills to persons with
system that was a booklet containing 25-31 disabilities.
pictures of the steps required in the skill
sequences. Six adults participated and were Video technology is emerging as an effective
taught different sets of tasks that involved medium for teaching life skills to individuals with
cleaning and food preparation. Results indicated developmental disabilities. For example, it has
that participants not only had higher percentages been used to teach complex skills such as
of correct responding with the computer system, purchasing items (Cihak, Alberto, Kessler, Taber-
but also preferred it to the card system. Three of Doughty, & Gama, 2006), vocational tasks
the participants who had acquired a high degree (Martin et al., 1992; Morgan & Salzberg, 1992),
of correct responding in the first study also community skills (Alberto, Cihak, & Gama, 2005;
participated in the second study. In the second Branham, Collins, Schuster, & Kleinert, 1999),
study, the researchers taught the same tasks as in grocery shopping (Ayres & Langone, 2002;
study one and presented all stimulus materials Mechling, 2004; Mechling & Gast, 2003), social
using the computer-based system, but compared skills (Goldsworthy, Barab, & Goldsworthy,
variations of how the pictures were presented 2000; Nikopoulos & Keenan, 2004; Simpson,
(i.e., the stimulus materials were altered Langone, & Ayres, 2004), and daily
somewhat so that the participants would not living/domestic skills (Bidwell & Rehfeldt, 2004;
have to return to the computer as often during Graves, Collins, Schuster, & Kleinert, 2005;
task engagement). Results indicated that clustered Lasater & Brady, 1995; Norman, Collins, &
presentations were more effective in maintaining Schuster, 2001; Rehfeldt, Dahman, Young,
correct task performance and participants Cherry, & Davis, 2003; Shipley-Benamou,
required less prompting, or instructional Lutzker, & Taubman, 2002; Sigafoos et al., 2005;
opportunities, delivered from the device. Van Laarhoven & Van Laarhoven-Myers, 2006).
In essence, it appears that handheld computers, Research that has been conducted on the use of
when used as prompting systems, are effective video technology within the vocational domain
for promoting correct independent responding has had mixed results. For example, Morgan and
among individuals with moderate to severe Salzberg (1992) used video-assisted instruction to
disabilities. In addition, handheld devices appear teach employment-related problem-solving skills
to be effective at reducing external prompting to adults with disabilities. They showed
from staff during task engagement and have also participants videos of positive and negative
been used to encourage time management and examples and asked a series of questions to
scheduling among individuals with mental provide discrimination training prior to assessing
retardation (Davies, Stock, & Wehmeyer, 2002b) participants in actual work settings. Results
as well as initiation and completion of daily tasks indicated that effects did not generalize until
among individuals with ADHD (Epstein, Willis, behavioral rehearsal was introduced for 2 of the
Conners, & Johnson, 2001). Handhelds are also 3 participants. Martin, Mithaug, & Burger (1992)
desirable because they are portable, relatively compared several different instructional
inexpensive, and used frequently among strategies for teaching assembly skills to
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secondary students with moderate disabilities in to as video rehearsal and will refer to the entire
an unused classroom. These strategies included: video sequence being presented prior to task
(a) photographs (a photo of completed piece of engagement. The video feedback component will
furniture); (b) sequenced pictures (comprised of refer to having the participant view a video clip
line drawings); (c) sequenced pictures plus (displaying correct performance) following errors
modeling (same as previous, only the that occurred during task engagement.
experimenters also modeled how to perform
assembly); (d) picture referencing (used in The instructional methods that were compared
conjuction with sequenced pictures, the are built on existing research that demonstrates
experimenter also pointed back to picture when the success of video modeling and video
student made an error or no response); (e) video feedback while employing the latest technology
modeling (participant was shown video clip of and theory of computer-assisted instruction.
step prior to performing step; also called video
prompting); and (f) video referencing (used in Method
conjunction with previous, only video clip was
played again following errors or no response; also Participant Selection
called video feedback) The researchers found
picture referencing to be more effective than Participants were recruited from high school
video modeling and video referencing. However, programs located in the suburbs of Chicago. To
video referencing (e.g., video feedback) was recruit, a description of the study was e-mailed to
almost as effective as picture referencing, and teachers in several school districts. Of those who
video modeling became more robust as students responded, a follow-up questionnaire was sent
had exposure to it. to:(a) identify students who were in the process
of obtaining new jobs in community
To our knowledge, there has not been any environments, (b) obtain personal information
research done investigating the utility of using a for the participant to obtain informed consent
handheld device to present video-based materials and assent, and (c) obtain information regarding
to promote independent responding among potential job sites in order to request permission
individuals with mild to moderate disabilities. from the employers to conduct research in their
The purpose of this research was to determine if establishments. Participants were then selected
video modeling and video feedback, when from the pool of respondents based on the
presented on a portable handheld device, would criteria listed above.
increase independent responding of two
individuals who were employed in community- Participants
based environments. The current study extends
available research in a couple of ways. First, this Two young men with mild and moderate
study differs from the others in that it evaluated cognitive impairments, who attended public
the effectiveness of using video-based school programs, participated in the study. Both
instructional materials presented on a handheld were recently hired at two different restaurants in
device, whereas prior research using this the community and neither had any prior
technology evaluated the effectiveness of using exposure to their assigned tasks.
picture-based materials. Second, a feedback
component was also used to provide error Devon was an 18-year-old student enrolled in a
correction. And third, the research was large suburban high school where his educational
conducted in community-based settings with goals were met through inclusive programming
non-disabled coworkers. and practices. His full scale score on the
Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence
For the purposes of this paper, the video (WASI; Psychological Corporation, 1999) was 78
modeling/rehearsal component will be referred
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and he had a diagnosis of Asperger’s syndrome. computers for the purposes of word processing,
Much of his coursework was taught at the basic PowerPoint™, and basic email. He could
fundamental level by general education teachers, complete basic tasks with visual and/or verbal
coupled with the assistance and support of prompts. His previous work experience involved
special education teachers and/or special light custodial and some office work. He was
education teaching assistants. He had been hired at Applebee’s, another large restaurant
enrolled in a basic skill computer class and was chain, for nine hours per week and this is where
fairly adept at utilizing a PC computer for basic baseline and instructional sessions took place.
word processing, PowerPoint™, internet His primary duties involved portioning food for
searches, and email activities. Devon also various recipes and cleaning and sanitizing his
received speech therapy, occupational therapy workspace.
and adaptive physical education services. He
demonstrated a significant “aversion” to any type Setting
of job or employment opportunity and initially
refused to participate in any capacity. After one Baseline and instructional sessions were
year of career counseling, he agreed to conducted in the participants’ employment
“sampling” job tasks for periods extending no settings; Devon was at Red Robin, and Marcus
longer than 45 minutes per week. Some of these was at Applebee’s. Devon worked primarily in an
experiences involved light office duties and some area off the kitchen at Red Robin and was
food preparation. With some coaxing, he agreed scheduled to work on Friday and Saturday
to increase his work hours to eight hours per evenings for four-hour shifts. This area could be
week and was hired at Red Robin, a large described as an open area or large hallway that
restaurant chain where the study took place. He was near the refrigerator and back exit. Most of
seemed very motivated to keep this particular job his tasks were completed at a tall stainless steel
and engaged in frequent discussions regarding his rolling table (e.g., rolling and sorting silverware,
attitude and what types of dispositions were and sanitizing the rolling table), however, he also
important for employees to possess. His primary had to go to the front of the restaurant to replace
job responsibilities involved sorting and completed silverware rolls and to clock in and
sanitizing silverware and rolling silverware. out. Other aspects of his job required him to also
go to the dishwashing area to sanitize sorted
Marcus was an 18-year-old student enrolled in an silverware or to obtain trays of rinsed silverware
inclusive high school. Most of his instructional that needed to be sorted. This setting was often
programming, however, was conducted in a self- quite busy, i.e., loud music was in the
contained, life skills classroom taught by special background and coworkers were rushing around
education teachers. He had Down syndrome and while engaged in work activities. Staff members
his full scale IQ score on the Wechsler Adult were very outgoing and friendly and the
Intelligence Scale – 3rd Edition (WAIS-III; managerial employees were very supportive and
Wechsler, 1997) was 47. Marcus required always encouraged him to be part of the team.
extensive prompting to complete most tasks and
was highly cue dependent. Just before he entered Marcus worked in an area behind the kitchen at
the high school environment, he experienced Applebee’s. He was scheduled to work three
some type of social/emotional setback and was mornings a week before they opened for lunch
unable to complete academic and work tasks to and his primary responsibilities involved
the degree that he had previously performed portioning food for various recipes and cleaning
them. He also demonstrated a great drop in and sanitizing his work area. Most of his tasks
receptive and expressive communication, social were completed while standing at a tall stainless
participation, and moving throughout his steel counter. He also had to place trays of
environment without direction. Previously, portioned food in the walk-in refrigerator, bring
Marcus received instruction accessing PC
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empty vegetable bins to the dishwashing area, get task sequence was videotaped and then all of the
ice cubes from an ice machine in the kitchen, and steps in the sequence were combined together
clock in and out at the front of the restaurant. through the use of transition “swipes” to create a
Staff members at Applebee’s were very step-by-step video of the task. Once the video
supportive of Marcus. They adapted recipe sheets sequences were edited and rendered, they were
for him, had an assistant kitchen supervisor then compressed to Windows Media Video
assigned to train and assist him, and often set up (.wmv) file formats using the free download of
his station before he arrived. Easy AVI/VCD/DVD/MPEG Converter™,
version 1.1.8 software (8864soft.com, 2005). This
Tasks was necessary, or the videos would not play on
the Pocket PC.
Devon had three tasks that were targeted for
instruction. These included: (a) rolling silverware, Once the videos were compressed, each
(b) sorting and sanitizing silverware, and (c) sequence was then placed on a presentation slide
clocking in and out. Marcus also had three tasks using Pocket Slides™, version 4.0.100.1190
targeted for instruction including: (a) portioning presentation software (Conduits Technologies,
recipes (i.e., 4 oz house salads, 8 oz salads, 8 oz Inc., 2005). This presentation software was used
stir fry veggies, & 5 oz side veggies); (b) clocking to make it easier for the participants to select the
in and out; and (c) cleaning and sanitizing his correct video that corresponded with the tasks
work space. Task analyses of each task are they were to perform at work. The slides also had
available from the first author. text above the pictures to describe the content of
the video file (e.g., rolling silverware).
Instructional Materials
Unfortunately, we were unable to find
An HP iPAQ hq2700 series Pocket PC™ (that presentation software that would allow for videos
operated with the Microsoft Pocket PC 2003, to be embedded within the slideshows. Unlike
2nd edition software™) was used as the PowerPoint™, which can embed videos within
prompting device. Videos were taped in each the presentation, the software for handheld
participants’ vocational site and were comprised devices at the time the study was conducted did
of a combination of “self” models (the not have the capabilities to do so. In order to
participant performing the task), and “other” view the videos, the software had to open
models (both male and female adults that were Windows Media Player™, and then that had to
either one of the first two authors or another be closed to return to the slideshow. Originally,
employee). Videos were edited using Pinnacle we intended to use video prompting to present
Studio 8™ (Pinnacle Systems, 2002) and each clusters of steps (two to three steps) within the
task was edited to show the entire sequence from skill sequence; however, that would have
start to finish (e.g., clocking in sequence). Video involved frequent opening and closing of the
segments were comprised of a combination of media player, thereby making it more difficult to
wide angle (full view of the model in context) use. We felt that it would be easier to use the
and zoom shots (showing the hands of the device for presenting full sequences of the task
model). A photo of the most salient feature of prior to task engagement (video rehearsal) and
the sequence (e.g., sliding employee card in also chose to use video rehearsal strategies due to
computer) was “grabbed” out of the video and the nature of the tasks that were being
placed at the beginning of each video segment performed. The participants needed the use of
and voice over narration was added to highlight their hands for most aspects of their tasks.
critical components of the task. Prior to
videotaping each task, task analyses were written In addition to the video-based materials,
to ensure that all of the steps would be additional visual supports were provided to assist
represented in the video model. Each step in the Marcus with using the scale to portion food
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recipes. These support included small, color- was ineffective for each step in the skill sequence.
coded Post-It® flags that were placed on the Maintenance sessions were conducted in the
correct number of ounces needed for each recipe same manner as baseline sessions; however, a
on Marcus’ scale. The Post-It® flags were added demonstration was not provided.
beginning on session seven. This was done to
highlight the correct number on the scale and to Instructional Procedures
assist him with lining up the arrow within the
acceptable “range” of ounces needed (rather than Participants were given the handheld device and
aligning the arrow exactly on the number on the shown videos of each instructional sequence
scale). prior to engaging in the required task. For
example, when they first arrived at work,
Design participants were met at the door by the
researchers or job coach and were given the
A multiple probe design across tasks was used to handheld device and shown the clocking in
evaluate the effectiveness of the video-based sequence. Participants independently put on
procedures on independent responding and headphones, held the device, and were prompted
percentage of prompts and was replicated across to select and play the correct videos using a
students (Gast, Skouge, & Tawney, 1984; Horner system-of-least prompts prompting hierarchy.
& Baer, 1978). Baseline data were collected for all After viewing the videos, participants gave the
three tasks prior to the introduction of the handheld back to the job coach and/or
independent variable on the first task. Once the researcher, who then carried the device to the
students met criterion on the first task (i.e., 80% location of the next task. When it was time for
correct independent responding for three them to switch to a different job task,
consecutive sessions), baseline probes were then participants were prompted to get the handheld
conducted on the other two tasks in the second and watch the video sequences prior to engaging
and third tier. Baseline probes were again in the next task. They were only given prompts
implemented for the third task once participants when necessary.
met criterion on the second task.
It should be noted that although Marcus had
Baseline and Maintenance Procedures four different recipes to portion (and a different
video for each), they were all very similar in that
Baseline consisted of observing participants they involved weighing food and placing it in
engaging in their assigned tasks without access to bags. There were only subtle differences between
the handheld device. Data were collected only on the steps required to complete each recipe and
the first attempt for each task (e.g., first attempt they varied in terms of the type of food that was
at rolling silverware). During initial training, weighed, the number of ounces needed, and the
participants were given several demonstrations types of baggies used. The recipes changed
from their coworkers on how to perform each across days depending on the needs of the
task in their job description (and videotaping was restaurant and he was often required to portion
conducted during this time). Participants were two or three different recipes within one work
then expected to attempt the tasks themselves session. Each recipe constituted a session and he
and were given assistance from the researchers or may have had two or three recipe sessions in one
job coach and this is when baseline data were day (on most days, he would portion only one or
collected. During this time, participants were first two recipes). Similarly, Devon needed to shift
given an opportunity to attempt the task back and forth between rolling and sorting and
independently. If there was no attempt within sanitizing silverware throughout his shift.
five seconds or an error was made, they were Depending on the level of customer volume, he
given a verbal prompt, followed by a may have had three to four sessions of each of
gestural/physical prompt if the verbal prompt these tasks within one shift. There were also only
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subtle differences between clocking in and Error correction. A two-level prompting
clocking out. Therefore, clocking in constituted hierarchy was used during both baseline and
one session and clocking out constituted another. instructional phases. In the event of an error or
Participants were shown videos prior to no attempt within 5 seconds of the natural
engagement with each task as they changed discriminative stimulus, participants were given a
during their shifts. After viewing the video, the verbal prompt to respond. If the verbal prompt
participants immediately engaged in the task and was not sufficient to prompt a correct response,
were given prompts as needed. a gestural or physical prompt was provided
(depending on what was necessary for the
Training Participants to Use Technology/Photos particular step) to ensure correct responding.
During instructional phases, participants were
Prior to engaging in instructional sessions, each also shown a positive video model of the skill
participant was given instruction on operating sequence following every fifth error in that
the handheld device. One of the researchers met specific skill sequence. For example, when
with participants individually and demonstrated portioning vegetables for the recipe task, if
how to use the device using a model-lead-test Marcus made an initial error when putting on
format. A video that was not used in the study gloves, and then made an error on the weighing
(i.e., how to set an alarm clock) was used for step for the next four bags of vegetables, he was
instruction on device operation; however, neither shown the video for that task. In essence,
participant met criterion (which was set at 80% participants were given video feedback once
independent correct responding for three there were five errors within a skill sequence,
consecutive sessions), and both needed assistance however, verbal, gestural, or physical prompts
in operating the device throughout the study. were given during the intervening errors; this was
Unfortunately, there was very little time to done to reduce the number of times the
provide instructional sessions on device participants needed to stop their work to watch
operation prior to the start of the study. Parent the video. Five errors was arbitrarily selected as a
permission slips were returned at the end of the point to provide video feedback and this was
regular school year and students were out of decided prior to intervention.
school for a couple of weeks prior to the
beginning of the summer session, which is when Independent Variables
the study took place. Both participants were
hired during the summer session and began work Video rehearsal. Participants viewed a
within two days of being hired. As a result, only video-based multimedia sequence on the
three 20-min instructional sessions could be handheld device prior to engaging in the task.
scheduled for each participant prior to
intervention. Due to the relatively short period of Video feedback. Participants were shown a
time between their being hired and beginning video of the skill sequence following every fifth
work, neither participant met criterion on device error in the skill sequence. Participants were
operation. Marcus needed prompting on how to shown the entire sequence and given positive
use the device throughout the study. Devon verbal feedback from the researchers on steps
learned to operate it independently by session 15, that were performed correctly and constructive
but needed assistance if he accidentally selected feedback on steps that were performed
the incorrect video or if he accidentally opened incorrectly. The only exception was that a special
the wrong application. Although the timing of feedback video was created for Marcus that
the study prevented sufficient instruction on showed adding or removing vegetables from the
device operation, we are confident that both bag on the scale during the recipe sequences. He
participants could have met criterion had there made several errors on that particular step, and
been more time for instructional sessions. watching the full sequence (including hand-
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washing, putting on gloves, etc.) seemed step) and multiplying by 100. Video feedback was
unnecessary. not included in this total.
Data Collection Procedures Number of sessions to reach criterion. The
acquisition criteria for each skill sequence was a
During baseline, instructional, and maintenance score of 80% or higher for three consecutive
phases, task analytic data were collected with sessions as measured by percentage of
correct/incorrect responses and prompt levels independent correct responding following the
being reported on each step of the skill sequence. introduction of the video-based materials.
A ‘+’ was recorded for independent correct
responses, a ‘-’ was recorded for incorrect Data Analysis
attempts, an ‘n’ was recorded for no attempt, and
a ‘√’ was recorded for each prompt given at each Experimental control was determined primarily
step (with a maximum of two per step). In the through visual inspection of the data and through
event that one of the steps was completed by a comparisons of means and trends for each phase
coworker, an ‘NA’ was recorded and that step and changes in the level of data across phases.
was not included in the total number of steps With the multiple probe design, experimental
during data summarization. Data were recorded control is demonstrated by a consistent change in
on the first attempt of the task immediately level and/or trend of the data from baseline
following the video rehearsal procedures (e.g., phases to intervention phases and lack of
the initial silverware roll). In addition, tic marks changes in the untreated behaviors (Wolery,
were made on the data sheet after the initial Bailey, & Sugai, 1988).
attempt of the task to keep track of errors (to
know when to provide video feedback). Reliability
Dependent Measures Reliability sessions were conducted on 27% of all
sessions for Devon and 45% of all sessions for
Percentage of independent correct responses. Marcus (including baseline and instructional
Participants were assessed on how independently sequences). The percentage agreement index (i.e.,
they performed the skills selected for instruction number of agreements divided by number of
prior to engaging in the instructional sequences agreements plus disagreements and multiplied by
(baseline), during instruction, and following 100) was used to calculate inter-observer
instruction (maintenance for Marcus). The score agreement. A research protocol was written and
was determined by dividing the number of steps shared with all observers regarding methodology
with independent responding by the total and data collection procedures. All observers
number of steps in the skill sequence and practiced data collection during practice sessions
multiplying by 100. Baseline and maintenance in the restaurant settings until they achieved
sessions differed from instructional sessions in scores of 90% agreement or higher for three
that participants were expected to perform the consecutive sessions.
skill without viewing videos on the handheld
device. Agreement for correct responding for Devon
across sessions resulted in a mean score of 98%
Percentage of prompts. Participants were (range = 92-100) and agreement for prompts
assessed on the number of external prompts they resulted in a mean score of 95% (range = 85-
needed to complete the skill sequence during all 100). Agreement for correct responding for
phases of the study. The score was determined Marcus across sessions resulted in a mean score
by dividing the number of prompts given by the of 97% (range = 90-100) and agreement for
total number of prompts possible (i.e., two per prompts resulted in a mean score of 95% (range
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Fall 2007, Vol.4, Num. 1

Figure 1. Percentage of independent correct responses for Devon.
= 86-100). In addition, the second observer Results
collected procedural reliability data (Billingsley,
White, & Munson, 1980). These measures The introduction of the video-based materials
included the following: (a) checking to ensure appeared to be associated with an increase in
that the correct video was shown for the independent responding and a reduction in
intended task for each participant, (b) checking prompting for both participants.
to determine if video feedback was delivered
following five errors, and (c) checking that the Percentage of Independent Correct Responses
prompting hierarchy was delivered as intended.
Reliability was calculated by dividing number of Figure 1 presents data for Devon’s independent
correct measures by total number of assessed correct responses. Although the data were
variables and multiplying by 100. Procedural ascending slightly in the second and third tier, the
reliability agreement averaged 100%. introduction of the video-based materials were
associated with a marked change in level from
baseline to instructional phases with a rapid
Assistive Technology Outcomes and Benefits / 37