ERIC EJ894801: What Future Teachers Think about Brain Research

2009·0.06 MB·English

by  ERIC

Thoughts about Brain Research 39
What Future Teachers Think About Brain Research

Debby Zambo and Ron Zambo
Arizona State University

As information becomes available, teachers of educational psychology must be ready to accept
or resist change. This is especially true when it comes to the brain because as technologies
advance, information about it is seeping into our lives. Deciding if, how much, and when this
information fits into educational psychology coursework can be difficult. In this survey study,
the authors gathered data from students (n = 215) enrolled in a professional teacher education
program in the southwestern United States. The study targeted the opinions of future teachers in
regard to the usefulness of brain research, the importance of learning about the brain, and
concerns about the applicability of brain research. The results indicate future teachers think brain
research is useful and valuable for educators. Participants were neutral about potential concerns.

Education advances as new information believe findings from neuroscience should
becomes available, and those who are be kept in biology; they have no practical
teaching educational psychology must be application for them. Given the dichotomy
ready to accept or resist change. This is between our students’ interests and the need
especially important related to information for instructors of educational psychology to
about the brain. As researchers learn more incorporate or eliminate brain research in
and more about brain development, their course, we wonder just where and if
chemistry and structure theories of learning brain research fits into the lives of our
and motivation are being altered, confirmed, students as future educators. As instructors
and changed. As technology advances, more of undergraduates, we are struggling to
and more educational psychology textbooks understand if, and how much, information
are referencing or containing entire chapters from brain research should be incorporated
dedicated to the brain, how it develops and into the courses we teach.
learns, and the things that motivate it to
succeed. However, paradigm shifts are not Our dilemma is timely because of the
always easy and deciding if, how much, and avalanche of new information being brought
how this information fits into educational into educational psychology textbooks. In
psychology coursework can be difficult the 1990s, the “decade of the brain” new
especially if students desire it or are technologies allowed scientists to pry open
skeptical of its use. From our experience the “black box” of the brain to see in vivo
working with future teachers, we have what was happening as an individual learned
noticed that some students are motivated to or performed a task (Restak, 2001; Willis,
learn all they can about the brain. They 2006). With improved technology, brain
avidly read the information on the brain in images were able to show the dramatic
their textbook and seek Web sites and physical changes that occur in the brain with
videos about the brain because they believe environmental stimulation and the dark,
neuroscience will provide insights and unlit areas that are present when a brain is
strategies they can transform into classroom deprived of the stimulation and affection it
use. In contrast, we see other future teachers needs (Perry, 2007). New technologies are
who remain skeptical. They invest little time leading to an understanding of how the brain
learning about the brain because they functions as it processes information and
Spring, 2009 Teaching Educational Psychology 5:2
Thoughts about Brain Research 40
why some individuals find learning so called to work with other professionals.
difficult (Shaywitz, 2005; Shaywitz, These professionals (e.g., physicians,
Shaywitz, & Fletcher, 1990). As a result of therapists, audiologists, etc.) learn about the
this new and growing body of knowledge, brain, and to communicate teachers need the
some researchers are calling for a paradigm same language or vocabulary. Information
shift in education, comparable in magnitude about the brain will enable teachers to work
to the shift from a behavioralist orientation with other professionals and generate
to a cognitive perspective in the 1960s and effective strategies based on students’
1970s (Byrnes & Fox, 1998). Many believe individual needs. It will also make teachers
that the findings from brain research can be more critical consumers of information
transformed into practical strategies teachers because they will be able to discern fallacies
can use to improve their teaching, and these from facts, and effective treatments from
are creeping into coursework and textbooks. unrealistic promises.

Some researchers, like Geake and However, there are others who have
Cooper (2003), believed that the findings reservations about the potential usefulness
from neuroscience are so important they of brain research in education. For example,
need to be part of teacher education and in Educational Psychology, Anita Wolfolk
professional development. These researchers (2007) cautioned her readers to be wary of
argued that teachers, psychologists, and brain research because even though much
neuroscientists need to work together. These has been written suggestions are often
researchers brought teachers into the mix oversimplified. Likewise, in Educational
because they believed that they will be the Psychology: Developing Learners, Jeannie
ones who transform findings from Ormrod stated that brain physiology does
neuroscience into reality. In their words, not explain how best to foster learning and
teachers will always be interested in gaining cognitive development. Ormrod noted that
an understanding of the multitude of factors educators enthusiastic about brain-based
that govern the learning of their charges. learning are likely to be talking about what
Such teacher professional development, we psychologists have known for years. This
suggest, should embrace an understanding of way of thinking is echoed by long-time
development of cognitive neuroscience. critic of neuroscience in the classroom, John
Therefore we propose that education adapt T. Bruer (1999). Bruer noted that even
an interactive bio-psycho-social model, though neuroscience provides information
which can only come if educationists engage about how the brain operates, much of what
neuroscientists in dialogue to share each is being sold to teachers is really little more
other’s professional knowledge. (p. 11) than a repackaging of 1970s cognitive
science. Bruer (1999) suggested that even
Similarly, Byrnes and Fox (1998) and though neuroscience provides images of the
Zull (2002) purported that if teachers learn brain at work, those images tell teachers
about neurons, synapses, and brain little about behavior or effective strategies.
chemistry they will be able to use that
knowledge to teach effectively. Others like Others worry about the profits being
Berninger and Richards (2003) believed made. Judy Willis (2006), a neuroscientist
teachers not only need to know about the and middle school teacher, warned that
brain but that they have the right to know many of the products being marked as brain
about the brain because they are the ones enrichment actually misinterpret or
Spring, 2009 Teaching Educational Psychology 5:2
Thoughts about Brain Research 41
overextend findings from brain research. Regardless of the views of the experts
Likewise, learning expert Jill Stamm (2007) and textbook writers, our experience shows
noted that many of the promises being made that brain research is making its way into
by companies selling toys, DVDs, and educational psychology textbooks and class
computer games to accelerate brain discussions. Yet, when we did a search for
development are not realistic because they information about students’ thoughts about
are based on making a profit and not on the neuroscience, or the beliefs of practicing
knowledge of neuroscientists who teachers, no information could be found. To
understand firsthand the facts and fallacies begin to fill in these gaps and help us to
about brain function (p. xi). Furthermore, understand where brain research might fit
with the availability of the Internet there are into our courses, we created a questionnaire
many Web sites of questionable validity to solicit the opinions of the preservice
related to the brain. For example, if you teachers in our courses. Our research
Google left brain + right brain you will find questions were (a) What sources do future
Web sites that tell you which side of your teachers use to get information about the
brain is dominant simply responding to brain and where might they go in the future
statements like, “I wear a watch.” and to get more information? (b) Do future
“Some people think I’m psychic.” Although teachers believe that information about the
dominance is a result of brain structure, brain will lead to better instruction? (c) Do
determining one’s dominant hemisphere by future teachers believe that learning about
responding to simple statements is the brain should be a part of teacher
questionable. In addition, there are Web education? and (d) How concerned are
sites that claim they can raise intelligence future teachers about the use of brain
scores, cure attention deficits, and make research in education?
babies more motivated to learn. In these
cases, information from neuroscience is Method
being overextended, and this is especially Participation in the project was
troubling when parents and teachers of voluntary and anonymous. Participants
children with disabilities put their faith in completed the questionnaire at the end of a
unfounded causes or cures. class session in an educational psychology,
assessment, or child development course in
In Constructing Autism, Nadesan (2005) which they were enrolled. Course
reported her concerns about making life- instructors, none of whom were connected
altering decisions about children and their with this research study, distributed and
learning from images, electrical patterns, collected the questionnaires. There were no
and analyses of brain chemistry. Nadesan points toward the course grade or any other
believed brains are complex structures with compensation offered as an incentive. A
variations and that variations challenge the scripted statement was used to introduce the
very notion of using brain scans and other study and explain procedures. After this
technologies. Drawing lines as to which introduction, students were given and asked
brain is defective gets messy because two to read a letter that explained potential risks
brains that are both considered normal (or of participation and their rights. The
abnormal) can look and function similarly students who decided not to participate in
and differently. the project were asked to leave the room. If
students agreed to participate, then they
were handed a questionnaire to complete. In
Spring, 2009 Teaching Educational Psychology 5:2
Thoughts about Brain Research 42
an effort to uncover the individual opinions enrolled in an undergraduate teacher
of the participants, participants were not education program at a state university in
allowed to talk to or discuss items with their the southwest region of the United States.
colleagues during the administration. The Within the college of education, participants
questionnaires were returned to the were enrolled in various programs such as
instructor immediately after their early childhood education (26, 12%),
completion. Although participation was elementary education (59, 27%), secondary
voluntary, everyone who was asked to education (40, 19%), special education (40,
participate in the study did. Possibly, this is 19%), and bilingual education (34, 16%).
an indication of these future teachers’ We were unable to determine the placement
interest in brain research. In addition, the of 16 (8%) participants because they
high level of participation eliminated the supplied no response to this demographic
possibility that participants self-selected, an question. Of the 215 who completed the
issue that comes to bear on the validity of questionnaire, 167 (78%) were female and
many survey studies. 48 (22%) were male. The majority of
participants were relatively young, 157
Participants (73%) were between 20 and 29 years of age
The participants were all full-time and 163 (76%) were White. Demographic
students, in their junior year in college, information is provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Demographic Information of Participants

Current placement No. %
Early childhood education 26 12.1
Elementary education 59 27.4
Secondary education 40 18.6
Special education 40 18.6
Bilingual education 34 15.8
No response 16 7.5
Ethnicity
American Indian or Alaskan Native 4 2
Asian or Pacific Islander 7 3
Biracial or Bicultural 1 1
Black or African American 4 2
Hispanic or Latino 31 14
White–Caucasian 163 76
Other 4 2
Missing 1 1
Age (in years)
Under 20 1 1
20–29 157 73
30–39 30 14
40–49 20 9
Over 50 7 3
Spring, 2009 Teaching Educational Psychology 5:2
Thoughts about Brain Research 43
Gender
Female 167 78
Male 48 22

Development of the Questionnaire The items were grouped under the three
The questionnaire included two overarching themes being investigated, later
items to gather information about these referred to as subscales: (a) Information
future teachers’ sources of information about the brain can lead to better instruction
about the brain. To spark their thinking (better), (b) learning about the brain should
about where they typically had found become a part of teacher preparation
information about the brain, we listed (prepare), and (c) there are potential
potential sources of information (i.e., problems with the application of brain
Internet, television, radio, magazines, research to education (concerns). The items
journals, courses, workshops), and were formatted with a 6-point Likert scale.
participants marked all that applied. The Participants indicated their level of
listed sources were based on our agreement with each statement as strongly
observations of where the general public and agree, agree, mildly agree, mildly disagree,
educators might see information about the disagree, or strongly disagree.
brain. An additional choice, “other,”
provided the participants the opportunity to Data from the 22 items in regard to
include additional, unlisted sources. A questions two, three, and four were entered
parallel item asked participants to predict into SPSS with 1 (strongly disagree) and 6
what sources they would use in the future to (strongly agree). Reliability of the 22
access information about the brain. Likert-type items was computed by using
coefficient alpha. The 22 items had a
The remainder of the questionnaire reliability of .72 with reliabilities of the
comprised items based on the research cited subscales at .84 (better), .80 (prepare), and
in the introduction of this manuscript. For .52 (concerns).
example, the idea posed by Berninger and
Richards (2003) that learning about the brain Results
offers educators a common language to Information Sources
communicate was the basis for, “Learning In regard to the first question, “What
about the brain gives teachers the sources do future teachers use to get
vocabulary they need to communicate information about the brain and where might
effectively with other professionals like they go in the future to get more
doctors and psychologists.” Other items information?” participants indicated that
were written on the opposing view and they relied on multiple sources. The mean
express what could be concerns, for number of sources participants reported
example, Bruer’s (1999, 2006) ideas as to using in the past and projected using in the
the true applicability and usefulness of brain future were both 3.0. Although the mean
research for educators became, “There are number of sources remained the same, the
too many bold statements about brain rankings of sources changed. For example,
research and its implications for education.” the Internet and television were the most
popular sources in the past, whereas, the
Internet and journals were the most popular
Spring, 2009 Teaching Educational Psychology 5:2
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sources expected to be used in the future. percentage of use of all sources for both past
Sources listed in the “other” category were and future.
colleagues and books. See Table 2 for the

Table 2. Sources of Information by Percentage of Participants

Source Past sources (%) Future sources (%)
Internet 64.2 73.5
Television 52.6 18.1
Journals 47.9 67.9
Courses 49.3 47.9
Magazine 41.4 27.0
Workshop 13.5 30.7
Inservice 9.3 14.0
Radio 11.6 3.7
Other 7.4 3.3
Not interested 3.7 2.3

Subscales and Participants’ Perceptions The percentages of participants
Means and standard deviations were agreeing with each statement were also
calculated for each subscale. Because the computed and can be found in Table 3. One
questionnaire had a 6-point Likert scale we item from better was agreed to by over 95%
considered means greater than 3.5 (the of the participants: “Learning about the
midpoint on the scale) an indication of brain will help teachers understand learning
agreement, means below 3.5 an indication of differences.” Three items from the subscale
disagreement, and their distance from 3.5 an prepare had over 95% agreement: (a)
indication of their strength of agreement or “Information from brain research should be
disagreement. Group means and standard used to improve instruction.” (b) “It is
deviations on each of the three subscales important for teachers to be informed about
were 4.69 (0.76) for better, 4.63 (0.71) for current brain research.” (c) “It is important
prepare, and 3.56 (0.65) for concerns. A to translate findings from brain research to
series of paired sample t tests (p < .01) practical teaching strategies.” No items from
revealed that the means for better and the subscale concerns had agreement above
prepare were not significantly different, 95%. The item with which there was the
however, they were both significantly higher least agreement (25%) was from concerns,
than the mean for concerns. that is, “Brain research is conducted in
clinical situations so findings should not be
applied to children in our schools.”

Spring, 2009 Teaching Educational Psychology 5:2
Thoughts about Brain Research 45
Table 3. Percentage of Agreement With Questionnaire Items

Subscale name and item %
Better

Learning about the brain will help teachers understand learning differences. 96.3
I believe findings from brain research will lead to a better education for all students. 94.9
I believe brain research will lead to better identification of students with special 93.5
needs.
Learning about the brain will help teachers design programs to optimize learning. 91.1
Teachers need to know about how the brain functions to understand teaching and 82.8
learning.
Teachers should be expected to consider the brain when they prepare lessons. 80.5
Prepare

Information from brain research should be used to improve instruction. 97.7
It is important for teachers to be informed about current brain research. 97.2
It is important to translate findings from brain research to practical teaching 96.8
strategies.
Learning about the brain is not too complicated for teachers. 92.1
Learning about brain functions has little to offer teachers. 89.3
School psychologists receive training about the brain and so should teachers. 83.2
Learning about the brain should be included in both the biological sciences and in 82.8
teacher preparation.
Learning about the brain gives teachers the vocabulary they need to communicate 78.1
effectively with other professionals like doctors and psychologists.
Teacher education is incomplete without information about the brain. 69.8
I believe learning about brain research is beyond the scope of what teachers should 68.8
be expected to learn.
Concerns

There is misunderstanding among educators about how brain research applies to 76.7
education.
I am concerned that brain research will be used to decide who will receive 61.4
educational enrichment.
There are too many bold statements about brain research and its implications for 58.6
education.
I am concerned that the use of brain research will create an additional financial 57.7
burden on schools.
I am concerned that in the future, brain research will be used to decide who will 46.6
receive special education services.
Brain research is conducted in clinical situations so findings should not be applied to 25.1
children in our schools.

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Thoughts about Brain Research 46
About 75% of the participants were brain research we should incorporate into
White women between the ages of 20 and our courses. We wondered where future
29. To determine variations between this teachers get information about the brain and
majority demographic and the remaining what they thought about the use and
25% of the participants, we used multiple applicability of brain research for education.
analyses of variance (MANOVAs) to We found participants in this study use an
determine the effect of ethnicity (White, average of three sources to acquire
non-White), gender (male, female), and age information about the brain and would likely
(20–29, over 29) on the three subscales. No continue to rely on three sources in the
significant differences were found for any of future. The use of multiple sources, both in
the three factors, indicating that the sample the present and future, indicates that these
was homogeneous and that the findings are individuals, like many, appear to be
applicable to all demographics included in interested in brain research. It seems as
the study. though the “decade of the brain” is filtering
into the lives of both preservice and
Further, about 50% of the sample practicing educators.
indicated a course as a past source of
information about the brain. We wondered if When asked about sources they have
educators who had learned about the brain typically used in the past, 64% of the
from a formal source (i.e., a course) might participants indicated that they relied on the
have more positive beliefs in regard to brain Internet, also the most frequently listed
research in education. MANOVA used to source for future information (74%).
determine the effect of having taken a Considering the participants’ ages and
course as a source of information about the educational levels, along with the times in
brain (took a course, did not take a course) which we live, it seems reasonable that the
on the three subscales revealed significant Internet was the most frequently indicated
differences between the two groups, F(3, source of information. There is an incredible
211) = 8.13, p < .01. Analyses of variance amount of information about brain research
(ANOVA) on each dependent variable were and education on the World Wide Web. A
conducted as follow-up tests. The ANOVA Google search for brain + education results
was significant for prepare, F(1, 213) = in millions of hits, for example, PowerBrain
11.61, p < .01, with means of 4.80 and 4.47 Education and the Education Connection.
for those who took a course about the brain
compared with those who did not. The The second most common past source
results for better and concerns were not was television (53%). Public television and
significant. cable channels offer programs on health and
Discussion wellness that many times focus on the brain,
As instructors we became aware of the learning, or both. A Google search of PBS +
debates concerning the relevance of brain brain reveals PBS programs, such as, Secret
research for educators, were seeing more Life of the Brain; The Brain Fitness
and more information about the brain being Program, Frontline: Inside the Teenage
brought into educational psychology Brain; and Change Your Brain, Change
textbooks, and began witnessing varied Your Life. In addition, brain research is
levels of enthusiasm from our students about becoming a common topic in the news and
brain research. This experience led us to as a result, television may be an incidental
wonder if, and how much, information from source of information, not sought out but
Spring, 2009 Teaching Educational Psychology 5:2
Thoughts about Brain Research 47
present in a program being watched for Follow-up MANOVA results provided
other reasons. However, the proportion of further insight. The effect of having taken a
those reporting that they would use course as a past source of information had a
television as a future source of information significant effect on the prepare subscale.
was only 18%. A similar decline is seen in Participants who had taken a course agreed
the use of magazines and radio. significantly more (4.80) that information
about the brain should be included in teacher
In regard to the three subscales, the education than those who had not (4.47).
future teachers felt somewhat strong
agreement (4.69) that learning about the Implications for Teachers of
brain could make them better teachers, Educational Psychology
especially in regard to learning differences. Understanding future teachers use the
There was also somewhat strong agreement Internet as a primary source of information
for the subscale of prepare (4.63). These about the brain could be of value for those
future teachers believe that their preparation interested in their training and this includes
should include information about the brain, those teaching educational psychology. The
especially practical strategies based on brain brain is a complex organ and simple, quick
research, because they will improve their understandings provided on the Internet do
instruction. Just as Berninger and Richards not help them understand how the brain
(2003) believed teachers have a right to learns or struggles to learn. Therefore it is
learn about the brain, it seems these important that future teachers be introduced
participants believed the same. They and directed to reputable Web sites with
believed information about the brain should valid information. Examples of these include
be made available as part of the coursework Brain Connection
they receive. (www.brainconnection.com) and the Dana
Alliance for Brain Initiatives
The participants’ beliefs in regard to (www.dana.org/braincenter). These groups
concerns were neutral (3.56). These future are working alongside neuroscientists to
teachers neither agreed nor disagreed about translate what is being found into practical
misunderstanding or misinterpreting ideas. We propose that if future teachers are
information from brain research. They were given this information they will think
less inclined to be concerned about the use critically about what they are being sold and
of brain research to diagnose children and what they are doing in their classrooms.
provide enrichment. These participants have Using Web sites like these, along with
neutral concerns that brain research is being information in educational psychology
overstated or that its use will cause textbooks and theories like information
additional financial burdens on schools. The processing, could provide the solid
item that was agreed to most strongly in this information students need.
subscale was, “There is misunderstanding
among educators about how brain research The participants in this study believe
applies to education” (77%). This may be an they are capable of understanding how the
indication of these future teachers’ brain learns and that this should be part of
awareness that there is much information the education and professional development
available that is either misunderstood or they receive. They want information so that
false. they may provide good instruction based on
science and research. A second implication
Spring, 2009 Teaching Educational Psychology 5:2
Thoughts about Brain Research 48
is that future teachers need to be taught how As instructors we recognize there is a lot
to take valid information and transfer it into to teach in a short amount of time and that
what they do with children. New discoveries standards often drive our work. However,
about the brain and how it learns are being there is no denying that information from
made every day. These discoveries are neuroscience is seeping into our daily lives,
challenging our beliefs and enriching what the lives of our students, and into the
we know about teaching, learning, courses we teach. This study raised issues
motivation, and human behavior. It seems about information sources and perceptions
reasonable for future teachers to receive this of future teachers, and this is important
latest information in courses that help them because teachers hold the learning of our
not only to learn the information from brain nation’s children in their hands. Preservice
research but also to transform it into teachers should receive the best and most
practice. Many educational psychology up-to-date information available, and they
textbooks contain good facts, and these should be taught to be critical of unreliable
courses would be a good place for this information being sold for profit. Even if
information. Ways to blend ideas from standards do not contain this information
cognitive science, development, and they do propose best practices and critical
motivation with neuroscience would provide thinking. Information from this study may
up-to-date information and help students help those concerned with professional
discern facts from fallacies. development, especially those who teach
educational psychology courses.

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