ERIC EJ893803: The Relationship of Perfectionism to Affective Variables in Gifted and Highly Able Children

2010·0.43 MB·English

by  ERIC

The Relationship of
PPeerrffeeccttiioonniissmm
to Affective Variables
in Gifted and Highly Able Children
20 summer 2010 • vol 33, no 3
How does perfectionism relate
to gifted and high-ability learners?
Does the presence of perfectionist tinguishable from average students in
tendencies lead to more serious emo- levels of depression or suicidal ideation
tional issues or does it support enhanced (Baker, 1995; Cross, 1996; Cross,
Mary M. Christopher achievement? Parents, educators, and Gust-Brey, & Ball, 2002; Neihart et
gifted learners themselves often con- al., 2002). Several writers have linked
sider these issues as they deal with the characteristics of gifted children to
and Jennifer
ramifications of such perfectionist ten- risk factors for depression, perfection-
dencies. This study focused on explor- ism, and anxiety (Greenspon, 2000;
Shewmaker ing perfectionism and its relationship to Orange, 1997; Parker & Adkins,
social, emotional, and academic issues 1995; Schuler, 2000). Based on such
for gifted and highly able learners. claims, Roeper (1995, 1996) advo-
Since the studies of Hollingworth cated that educators should work on
(1926, 1942), researchers have dis- understanding the whole gifted per-
cussed social-emotional characteris- son, including social-emotional issues,
tics along with the resulting issues and rather than merely academic concerns.
problems of gifted children. However, The Teaching for Intellectual and
little research has been done on the Emotional Learning (TIEL) model
aspects of perfectionism and its rela- espouses connecting cognitive and
tionship to affective variables in gifted social-emotional components in edu-
and highly able children. cational programming for gifted chil-
Research presents conflicting views dren (Folsom, 2006). More research
of social-emotional characteristics of is needed to clarify the relationship
gifted learners (Janos & Robinson, between perfectionism and affective
1985; Moon & Hall, 1997; Moon, variables in the gifted population and
Kelly, & Feldhusen, 1997; Neihart, to aid educators who work with gifted
1999; Silverman, 1993). “Some students struggling with these issues in
studies suggest that these children developing effective responses to their
are highly motivated, well-adjusted, perfectionist tendencies. Self-Oriented
socially mature, open to new experi- Perfectionism (SOP) is characterized
ences, independent, and possess high by exacting standards set for one’s self.
self-concepts and a high tolerance for This subtype exhibits a healthy com-
ambiguity” (Keiley, 2002, p. 43). In ponent that may propel one toward
contrast, other studies support the higher levels of effort and achievement.
idea that giftedness accompanies a Socially Prescribed Perfectionism
tendency to develop social-emotional (SPP) represents internalization of the
difficulties, such as social isolation and perceived perfectionistic expectations
loneliness, which may lead to depres- of significant others in one’s life.
sion, anxiety, phobias, and interper- The complex construct of sensitiv-
sonal problems (Jackson, 1998; Kaiser ity, intensity, and perfectionism pro-
& Berndt, 1986; Piechowski, 1997; duces common characteristics and
Silverman, 1993). counseling concerns for gifted children
Popular thought supports the idea and adolescents (Webb, Meckstroth,
that depression and suicide occur at & Tolan, 1982). Research relating the
higher rates in gifted individuals than constructs of perfectionism to gifted
the rest of the population, but research individuals supports three conclusions:
studies have not confirmed that belief (a) perfectionism may result in patho-
(Neihart, Reis, Robinson, & Moon, logical problems; (b) perfectionism in
2002). Gifted students remain undis- gifted individuals may contribute to
gifted child today 21
Perfectionism and Affective Variables
high achievement; and (c) attributions the tendency to be overly critical of Pritchard, Wilson, & Yamnitz, 2007;
of perfectionism fall along a range oneself and focuses on others’ percep- Stoltz & Ashby, 2007).
of continuums (Adderholdt-Elliott, tions of one’s achievement has been
1991; Ford, 1989; Hollingworth, associated with depressive symptoms Perfectionism Resulting
1926; Karnes & Oehler-Stinnett, (Dunkley & Blankstein, 2000). This in Achievement
1986; Lovecky, 1994; Roeper, 1982; type of perfectionism is also associated
Silverman, 1990). Research has sug- with a perceived lack of social support,
Some theorists suggest that gifted
gested that perfectionism is best under- in which individuals do not effectively
students may tend to have perfection-
stood as a multidimensional concept seek social support even from their
ist strivings that result not necessarily in
(Enns & Cox, 2002). closest friends (Dunkley & Blankstein,
frustration, but in the healthy pursuit
2000; Dunkley, Zuroff, & Blankstein,
of achievement (Enns & Cox, 2002;
Pathological Aspects 2003). It has been proposed that this
LoCicero & Ashby, 2000; Parker, 2000).
of Perfectionism perceived lack of social support is a
“In a positive form, perfectionism can
maladaptive aspect of perfectionism
provide the driving energy that leads
(Priel & Shahar, 2000). Some stud-
Several studies focus on the patho- to great achievement” (Roedell, 1984,
ies have suggested that perceived lack
logical aspects of perfectionism; there- p. 127). American children tend to
of social support is a critical factor
fore, some researchers have viewed express perfectionism through healthy
in perfectionist individuals’ adjust-
perfectionism in a negative perspec- achievement rather than academic and
ment (Dunkley & Blankstein, 2000;
tive. Perfectionists “strain compulsively personal difficulties (Parker, 2000).
Dunkley et al., 2003) and that socially
and unremittingly toward impossible The talented artists or musicians work
prescribed perfectionism, in particu-
goals and measure their own worth intently to perfect their skills and abili-
lar, may lead to significant conflict in
entirely in terms of productivity and ties to produce the best work possible.
interpersonal relationships (Hewitt,
accomplishment” (Burns, 1980). Pacht Scientists work throughout their careers
Flett, & Mikail, 1995). In this same
(1984) viewed perfectionism as inher- to find the cure for cancer or solutions
ently destructive, causing psychologi- study, Hewitt et al. (1995) concluded to environmental problems. A com-
cal problems. Adderholdt-Elliot (1991) that both Other-Oriented and Self- mon thread found in eminent scientists
considered perfectionistic tendencies of Oriented Perfectionism were associ- was an absorption in their work (Roe,
the gifted to be based in high standards, ated with low relationship satisfaction. 1970). The drive for excellence leads
birth order, parents, teachers, and peer Socially Prescribed Perfectionism has these gifted individuals to persevere
pressure. Some researchers suggest that been linked with maladaptive rela- and achieve their ultimate goal. “The
unrealistic expectations, such as those tionship behaviors, such as destruc- most consistent characteristic of cre-
centered in perfectionism, can lead to tive problem-solving approaches ative achievers is enthusiastic devotion
stress, anxiety, depression, and suicide (Flett, Hewitt, Shapiro, & Rayman, to work” (Ochse, 1990, p. 130), which
(Callahan, 1993; Cross, 1996; Cross 2001). Generally, socially prescribed results in the high standards and a drive
et al., 2002; Hewitt & Dyck, 1986; perfectionism has been linked with for excellence found in perfectionism.
Hewitt, Flett, & Turnbull-Donovan, maladaptive behaviors (Stoeber, SOP, which is mainly an internal form
1992; Huggins, Davis, Rooney, & Feast, & Hayward, 2009). Hewitt of perfectionism, has been associated
Kane, 2008; Huprich, Porcerelli, and Flett (2004) have linked socially with conscientiousness, self-esteem, and
Keaschuk, Binienda, & Engle, 2008; prescribed perfectionism with affective academic motivation (Hewitt & Flett,
LaPointe & Crandell, 1980). Others variables such as anxiety and depres- 2004; Miquelon, Vallerand, Grouzet,
suggest that expectations of perfection sion. Huggins et al. (2008) found that & Cardinal, 2005; Molnar, Reker,
may lead gifted students to be more socially prescribed perfectionism was a Culp, Sadava, & DeCourville, 2006).
anxious and depressed (Thompson & significant indicator of depression for Recent studies have shown that perfec-
Perkins, 2004) and that both SPP and preadolescents. Other researchers have tionists had higher academic achieve-
SOP are associated with depression found a tendency in some perfection- ment, life satisfaction, and pride than
in both gifted and nongifted students ists toward neurotic coping strategies their nonperfectionist peers (Must,
(Hewitt et al., 2002). that lead to dysfunction, social anxiety, 2008; Stoeber, Harris, & Moon, 2007;
In particular, perfectionism that and poor health (Biran & Reese, 2007; Witcher, Alexander, Onwuebuzie,
involves excessive self-scrutiny and Laurenti, Bruch, & Haase, 2008; Collins, & Witcher, 2007).
22 summer 2010 • vol 33, no 3
Perfectionism and Affective Variables
Range of Attributions appeared distracted, disorganized, and focused on a desire to be perfect, unre-
of Perfectionism undisciplined. alistic standards, and failures, flaws,
A study conducted by Schuler and shortcomings. SPP emphasized a
(2000) supports Hamachek’s contin- need to meet exaggerated expectations
Perfectionism in the literature has
uum of perfectionism. Schuler studied of the individual that one perceived to
been theorized to be a construct that
gifted adolescents in a rural com- be held by others. Although negative
has multiple dimensions that may have
munity using the FMPS. Fifty-eight psychological problems may correlate
either negative or positive effects on
percent of the participants exhibited to these types of perfectionism, the
school-aged youth (Gilman, Ashby,
perfectionism in a healthy range result- push toward perfectionism may accom-
Sverko, Florell, & Varjas, 2005).
ing from a sense of order and organi- pany positive adjustment and achieve-
Hamachek (1978) viewed perfection-
zation that helped them achieve their ment (Hamachek, 1978; Hewitt &
ism as falling on a continuum from personal best. They attributed their Flett, 1991). Speirs Neumeister (2004)
normal to neurotic. Normal perfec- success to hard work, drive for perfec- investigated Hewitt and Flett’s (1991)
tionists “derive a real sense of plea- typology of self-oriented and socially
sure from the labors of painstaking prescribed perfectionism in relation
effort” (Hamachek, 1978, p. 27). This to first-year college honor’s students’
healthy type focuses on perseverance, responses to success and failure.
high achievement, and high standards. Results from the study suggested that
Neurotic perfectionists are “unable to socially prescribed perfectionists mini-
feel satisfaction because in their own mized their successes and maximized
This healthy type
eyes they never seem to do things their failures, giving external attribu-
[of perfectionist]
good enough to warrant that feel- tions for them. The researchers labeled
ing” (Hamachek, 1978, p. 27). This focuses on this pattern as unhealthy, stating that it
unhealthy type results in frustrating perseverance, high may correlate with perfectionism and
behaviors that possibly lead to psy- achievement, and depression. In contrast, self-oriented
chological and physiological disorders, perfectionists took pride in their suc-
high standards.
cess and attributed that success to their
such as depression (Hewitt & Dyck,
own abilities and hard work. When
1986), eating disorders (Axtell &
failure occurred, they made realistic
Newton, 1993), obsessive-compulsive
tion, and competition with friends. attributions that were situation spe-
personality disorders (Rasmussen &
They considered doing their best as cific. This healthy style of perfection-
Eisen, 1992), suicide (Callahan, 1993:
more important than what they pro- ism fueled continued motivation and
Cross, 1996; Cross et al., 2002), and
duced. Twenty-eight and a half percent preserved self-concept.
alcoholism (Frost, Marten, Lahart, &
of the participants showed a fixation Although social-emotional issues
Rosenblate, 1990).
on making mistakes and a constant have commonly been linked to perfec-
In a study using the Frost
state of anxiety, which resulted in the tionism in gifted individuals, empiri-
Multidimensional Perfectionism
neurotic form of perfectionism. Their cal studies suggest that perfectionism
Scale (FMPS; Frost et al., 1990),
focus rested in grades rather than exists in a population that includes
Parker (1997) identified three types
doing their best and saw competition a range of abilities (Parker, 2000).
of academically talented adolescents:
with friends in a negative light. Gifted children or children with high
dysfunctional perfectionists, healthy
Hewitt and Flett (1991) described academic ability are not at a greater
perfectionists, and nonperfectionists. three dimensions of perfection- risk for being perfectionists (Neihart,
Dysfunctional perfectionists exhib- ism: Self-Oriented, Other-Oriented, 1999; Nugent, 2000). “For a minority
ited characteristics of anxiety, social and Socially Prescribed. Results of gifted adolescents, perfectionism is a
detachment, hostility, and overcom- from their study, using their own destructive force with detrimental con-
petitiveness. Healthy perfectionists Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale sequences while for most it is a healthy
behaved agreeably and were socially (MPS) indicated that SOP and SPP aspect of their lives resulting in positive
well-adjusted, goal-oriented, and accompanied depression and malad- growth” (Schuler, 2000, p. 190). Some
not neurotic. Nonperfectionists justment in both patients and non- empirical research suggests that gifted
dealt with narcissistic tendencies and patients. Self-Oriented Perfectionism children cwonhtoin uexedh iobnit p pageer f?e?ctionism
gifted child today 23
Perfectionism and Affective Variables
may demonstrate healthy achievement Purpose of Study Participants
rather than maladjustment (Ablard &
Parker, 1997; Dweck, 1986; Dweck The purpose of this study was to The participants in this study con-
& Leggett, 1988; Heyman & Dweck, explore the relationship between the sisted of 240 children between the
1992; Parker, 1997). perfectionism orientation of gifted and ages of 7 and 14 years. Gender of
Empirical knowledge about per- highly able children with the affec- participants included 58% male and
fectionism and its connection to the tive areas of depression, anxiety, and 42% female. Self-identified ethnicity
gifted population is limited at best. perfectionism. It was hypothesized fell into seven categories: Caucasian
that Socially Prescribed Perfectionism
Few studies have focused on perfec- (76%), Hispanic (9%), Asian American
(SPP) would be positively correlated
tionism in gifted children and ado- (4%), Indian/Pakistani (2.4%), Native
with depression levels in the gifted
lescents (Baker, 1995; Orange, 1997; American (1.2%), African American
child and adolescent sample. It was
Parker, 1997; Schuler & Siegle, 1994). (1%), and Other (6.4%).
also hypothesized that anxiety levels
Participants in one study of high All participants were identified as
in the gifted child and adolescent
school students that held high stan- gifted by one of two criteria: They had
sample would be positively correlated
dards evidenced higher grade point previously been identified and served
with SPP. Given the inconsistency in
averages and showed lower scores on through their school’s program for
findings regarding anxiety and perfec-
measures of depression and self-esteem gifted and talented children/youth or
tionism, particularly in the gifted pop-
(Accordino, Accordino, & Slaney, they were tested by the program staff
ulation, it was also hypothesized that
2000). Gilman and Ashby (2000) using standardized group intelligence
Self-Oriented Perfectionism (SOP)
studied the effect of perfectionism on would be negatively correlated with instruments and scored within the
middle school students and found sim- anxiety levels in the gifted child and 90th percentile on the composite score
ilar results to Accordino et al.’s (2000) adolescent sample. of ability. Those students previously
study. A study by Dixon, Lapsley, and identified as gifted met the identifica-
Hanchon (2004) examined the rela- Methodology tion qualifications outlined by their
tionship of perfectionism to psychiat- local school district. According to the
ric symptoms, adjustment, self-esteem, This study occurred during a 2-week Texas Education Agency’s (2000) Texas
and coping in a sample of gifted high summer enrichment program for State Plan for the Education of Gifted/
school students. They found that gifted children. This program occurs Talented Students, local school districts
some features of perfectionism, “such each summer at a small, private uni- must design their own identification
as organization and high personal versity in a rural community in Texas. system for students to enter their gifted
standards (and parental expectations), Teachers in this program hold graduate program. The system must include
could be cultivated to promote aca- degrees in gifted education. The sum- multiple assessment criteria, includ-
mer enrichment program serves as a
demic and personal adjustment in ing both objective and subjective
culminating practicum experience for
adolescents” (Dixon et al., 2004, p. measures, such as group administered
graduate students who are completing
105). More recently, researchers who ability (IQ) tests and achievement tests,
their master’s degree in gifted educa-
have examined perfectionism in stu- teacher inventories, parent inventories,
tion at the university in which the
dents with a range of abilities have portfolios, and grades. If students had
gifted program is housed. The pro-
found that gifted students are no more not been previously identified in their
gram provides higher level thinking
likely to evidence signs of perfection- local school district, individual ability/
and creative problem solving experi-
ism than their nongifted or disabled reasoning tests and an informal parent
ences that are often not available to
peers (Greenspon, 2008; O’Brien, inventory were administered. The abil-
students in their local school programs.
2006). These conclusions lead to the ity tests used for identification included
Directors of the program keep costs to
suggestion that additional research a minimum and provide scholarship the Wechsler Primary and Preschool
with gifted children and adolescents opportunities, allowing gifted children Scale of Intelligence (Wechsler, 2002),
could provide evidence demonstrating and adolescents from diverse socioeco- and the Test of Nonverbal Intelligence,
the effect of perfectionism on achieve- nomic status levels to participate in Third Edition (Brown, Sherbenou, &
ment and social-emotional well-being. the camp. Johnsen, 2006).
24 summer 2010 • vol 33, no 3
Perfectionism and Affective Variables
Instruments toms of anxiety through a 37 item Procedure
self-report instrument that requires
Researchers administered three a yes or no answer to specific ques- At the beginning of the study,
assessments to participants in the study: tions. Subscales include Physiological researchers provided consent forms
Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Anxiety, Worry/Oversensitivity, and for parents to sign and return in order
Kovacs, 1983), Revised Children’s Social Concerns/Concentration. On for their children to participate in the
Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS; the RCMAS, Physiological Anxiety is study. Ninety-six percent of the par-
Reynolds & Richmond, 1978), and defined as the index of a child’s expres- ents of all of the students participat-
Child and Adolescent Perfectionism sion of physical manifestations of ing in the camp granted permission for
Scale (CAPS; Hewitt, Flett, & Turnbull, anxiety. Worry/Oversensitivity items participation and all of these students
1994). Children took the assessment in contain the word “worry,” and suggest participated. At the beginning of each
a classroom group setting. All instru- the person is afraid, nervous, and in day on the second, third, and fourth
ments were administered as required by some manner oversensitive to environ- days of camp, children were admin-
the manual. mental pressures. This scale measures istered the instruments by graduate
The CDI (Kovacs, 1983) measures the internalization of anxiety. Social students. Each administration took
symptoms of depression through a 27
Concerns/Concentration are defined approximately 15 minutes to conduct.
item self-report instrument. Each item
as concern about self vis-à-vis other The instruments were administered in
consists of three statements. For each
people or express some difficulty con- the following order: CAPS, CDI, and
item, the individual is asked to select the
centrating, and feel unable to live up to RCMAS.
statement that best describes his or her
expectations of other significant indi-
feelings for the past 2 weeks. Subscales
viduals in their lives. The age range for Results
include Negative Mood, Interpersonal
the RCMAS is 6 to 19 years. Test-retest
Problems, Ineffectiveness, Anhedonia,
reliability coefficients range from .66 Descriptive statistics were gathered
and Negative Self-Esteem. On the
to .67 at 9 months, with an internal that indicated that, on the CAPS, more
CDI, Negative Mood is defined as
consistency coefficient of .85. of the students in the current study
feeling sad, crying, worrying about
The CAPS (Hewitt et al., 1994) is rated themselves as exhibiting behav-
“bad things,” being bothered or upset
a 22-item self-report instrument that iors and feelings consistent with SOP
by things, and being unable to make
has two subscales, Self-Oriented and than with SPP, with 43.5% of respon-
up one’s mind. Interpersonal Problems
Socially Prescribed Perfectionism. dents rating themselves as exhibiting
are defined as problems/difficulty in
This is a downward extension of the characteristics of SOP and 14.6%
interaction with people, trouble get-
Multidimensional Perfectionism of respondents rating themselves as
ting along, social avoidance, and social
Scale (MPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991). exhibiting characteristics of SPP.
isolation. Ineffectiveness is defined as
Participants endorse items in relation A correlational analysis was con-
negative evaluation of one’s ability
to how they view them as true for ducted in order to evaluate the extent
and school performance. Anhedonia
is defined as “endogenous depression” themselves, such as, “I try to be perfect to which participants’ ratings of their
including impaired ability to experi- in everything that I do.” On the CAPS, own perfectionism and their symp-
ence pleasure, loss of energy, sleep/ SOP is characterized by exacting stan- toms related to depression and anxiety
appetite problems, and sense of isola- dards set for one’s self. This subtype were related. A traditional Bonferroni
tion. Negative Self-Esteem includes exhibits a healthy component that adjustment was made to reduce type
feelings of low self-esteem, self-dislike, may propel one toward higher levels I error, adjusting the p value from p <
lack of love, and suicidal thoughts. The of effort and achievement. SPP repre- .05 to p < .007.
intended age range for using the CDI sents internalization of the perceived Researchers calculated a Pearson
is 7 to 17 years of age. Several studies perfectionistic expectations of signifi- correlation coefficient between SPP
have demonstrated good internal con- cant others in one’s life. The age range and the CDI Depression scale (M =
sistency for the CDI, ranging between for the CAPS is 6 to 16 years. Good 39.256, SD = 4.682). The resulting
0.83 and 0.94 (Saylor, Finch, Spirito, internal consistency and adequate test- correlation was r = .206, a modest
& Bennett, 1984). retest reliability have been reported positive relationship that was signifi-
The RCMAS (Reynolds & (Castro, Gila, Gual, Lahortiga, Saura, cant at the .007 level (p = .003) and
continued on page ??
Richmond, 1978) measures symp- & Toro, 2004). accounted for 30% of the variance. A
gifted child today 25
Perfectionism and Affective Variables
Table 1 (b) the positive correlation between
Correlations Among Types of Perfectionism and specific aspects of depression, such
CDI Depression Scores as physiological symptomology and
socially prescribed or externally
Type of perfectionism Depression totals derived perfectionism; and (c) the
Socially Prescribed Perfectionism (SPP) .206* negative correlation between anxiety
Self-Oriented Perfectionism (SOP) .097 and both self-oriented/internally and
socially prescribed/externally derived
* p < .007 for all analyses. CDI = Children Depression Inventory.
perfectionism.
Table 2 The relationship between Depression
Correlations Among Types of Perfectionism and and SPP was confirmed in the gifted
RCMAS Anxiety Scores population and has been found in other
samples (Hewitt et al., 2002; Stoeber
Type of perfectionism Anxiety totals
et al., 2009; Thompson & Perkins,
Socially Prescribed Perfectionism (SPP) -.432*
2004). This finding, while replicating
Self-Oriented Perfectionism (SOP) -.334*
others in some ways, is important in
* p < .007 for all analyses. RCMAS = Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale.
that this study used a relatively large
rural sample of gifted students, which
Pearson correlation coefficient was also between SPP and the RCMAS Anxiety
represents a different population than
calculated between SPP and the sub- scale and subscales. The resulting cor-
has been represented in previous stud-
scales of the CDI. The resulting corre- relation for the Anxiety scale and SPP
ies. These results support the research
lation for the Anhedonia subscale (M was r = -.432, a moderately negative
that suggests that perfectionism exists
= 12.126, SD = 2.151) was r = .195, a relationship at the .007 level (p = .000)
in a population that includes a range of
modest positive relationship that was of significance accounting for 19% of
abilities (Parker, 2000) in that they are
significant at the .007 level (p = .004) the variance. Correlations are shown
the same as those found in other popu-
but accounted for only 4% of variance. in Table 2. lations (Hewitt et al., 2002; Thompson
The results of this analysis are consis- No other statistically significant cor- & Perkins, 2004). These findings are
tent with expectations in that SPP relations were found between types of consistent with research that suggests
was positively correlated at a statisti- perfectionism and affective areas mea- that expectations of perfection may
cally significant level with depression. sured. These findings were consistent lead students to be more depressed
It is interesting to note that modest with our expectations in that SOP was (Callahan, 1993; Hewitt & Dyck,
relationships that were statistically negatively correlated in a statistically 1986; Hewitt et al., 1992; LaPointe &
significant were also found between significant way with anxiety. However, Crandell, 1980, Thompson & Perkins,
SPP and the Anhedonia subscale of the findings were not consistent with 2004; Stoeber et al., 2009). It also con-
the CDI. Researchers also calculated a our expectations in that the statistically firms the research that suggests that par-
Pearson correlation coefficient between significant relationship that was found ticular types of perfectionism may lead
SOP and the CDI Depression scale. between SPP and Anxiety was in the to unhealthy emotional development
The resulting correlation was r = .097, negative direction. Although none of (Biran & Reese, 2007; Hamachek,
which was not statistically significant the correlations’ coefficients were above 1978; Laurenti et al., 2008; Pritchard
(p = .169). Correlations are shown in .50 and were considered modest, they et al., 2007; Schuler, 2000; Stoltz &
Table 1. were powerful due to the size of the Ashby, 2007).
In addition, a Pearson correlation sample, showing significant trends. In this sample of gifted students,
coefficient was calculated between those who rated themselves as hav-
SOP and the RCMAS Anxiety scale Discussion ing high levels of socially prescribed
(M = 16.807, SD = 6.414). The result- perfectionism also rated themselves
ing correlation was r = -.334, a mod- Three features of the results of as having high levels of depression, in
est negative relationship at the .007 this study are particularly important: particular those symptoms involving
level (p = .000) of significance that (a) the positive correlation between anhedonia. The fact that this specific
accounted for 12% of the variance. depression and socially prescribed aspect of depression, which involves
Correlations were also computed or externally derived perfectionism; physiological symptoms of depression,
26 summer 2010 • vol 33, no 3
Perfectionism and Affective Variables
was linked in this sample with SPP is
interesting. These findings suggest that [A] combination of challenge and realistic
not only general symptoms of depres-
sion but particular manifestations may expectations allows students to experience
be linked with perfectionist tendencies
that arise from external expectations. intellectual challenge as a positive learning
In contrast to findings in other
studies (Thompson & Perkins, 2004), experience rather than something to be avoided.
the positive relationship between
Anxiety and SPP was not confirmed in
this study. It may be that this is due to
dents. Because the study analyzed data do suggest several implications for
the fact that the study was conducted
correlationally, no assumptions of home and school. They suggest that
during the summer months and while
causality can be assumed. Therefore, parents and teachers focus on provid-
subjects were participating in an activ-
researchers do not conclude that per- ing gifted students with realistic expec-
ity that they elected to attend. Subjects
fectionism causes depression or that tations while offering a consistent level
may have been less anxious than they
perfectionism reduces incidence of of challenge in the early grade levels.
would have been during the academic
anxiety. Participants who showed a This combination of challenge and
school year when required to partici-
tendency for socially prescribed per- realistic expectations allows students
pate in particular subject study and
fectionism also showed characteristics to experience intellectual challenge as
activities not of their own choosing.
of “endogenous depression” involving a positive learning experience rather
Some limitations to this study were
difficulty experiencing pleasure, loss of than something to be avoided.
present. One limitation related to the
energy, sleep/appetite problems, and These findings indicate that perfec-
fact that the population used in this
sense of isolation. Participants exhib- tionism may not necessarily be anxiety
study included students who scored
iting high levels of both self-oriented provoking for gifted students. Students
in the 90th percentile and above on
and socially prescribed perfectionism who evidence tendencies toward per-
ability and achievement tests. Most
expressed low levels of anxiety. fectionism should be encouraged to
school programs developed for gifted
These results support Hewitt and be aware of their own levels of anxiety
and talented students serve gifted
Flett’s (1991) thesis that perfectionism and to understand when they may be
students functioning in the 95th
exists on a continuum and that while putting too much pressure on them-
percentile or above on identification
some types of perfectionism (SPP) tend selves. This approach allows children
measures. Therefore, the population
to occur with depression, it may also the opportunity to use their perfec-
of the current study may not repre-
be negatively correlated with levels of tionist tendencies to excel while pro-
sent populations served in all gifted
anxiety. These data regarding tenden- viding them with guidance regarding
education programs. Another limita-
cies toward depression support previ- potential anxiety.
tion resulted from the fact that the
ous studies suggesting that perfectionist The results of this study suggest
instruments used in this study were
tendencies are linked to depression that perfectionist tendencies that
self-report instruments, which rely on
in gifted students (Callahan, 1993; focus on external expectations may
the subject to report his or her own
Hewitt & Dyck, 1986; Hewitt et al., accompany more depressive sympto-
thoughts and feelings. The results of
1992; Hewitt et al., 2002; LaPointe & mology. Students who evidence this
self-report instruments may not be
Crandell, 1980). The results about feel- type of perfectionism (SPP) should be
reliable if the subjects involved do not
ings of anxiety do not support previous encouraged to be aware of their moods
report truthfully.
studies and literature reviews suggest- and to monitor their expectations. It is
ing that perfection correlates to anxiety also important in these circumstances
Conclusions
in gifted students (Greenspon, 2000; that there be frank communication
Neihart et al., 2002; Schuler, 2000; between the parent, child, and school
The findings from this study pro- Thompson & Perkins, 2004). community regarding the messages
vide additional insights into the Although results from this study that are being sent by others regard-
relationship between perfectionism, cannot be generalized to the larger ing expectations for perfection. Gifted
continued on page ??
depression, and anxiety in gifted stu- population of gifted individuals, they learners who evidence SPP may need
gifted child today 27
Perfectionism and Affective Variables
assistance in learning how to commu- ing of the extent of this relationship fectionism dimensions in children and
nicate their feelings effectively and seek in gifted individuals in particular. It adolescents with anorexia nervosa. Jour-
social support when appropriate. also suggests that future research stud- nal of Adolescent Health, 35, 392–398.
The TIEL model of teaching might ies focus on the usefulness of specific Cross, T. L. (1996). Examining claims
about gifted children and suicide.
be particularly useful in working with educational models, such as the TIEL
Gifted Child Today, 18(3), 46–48.
these issues. This model espouses model, in aiding in the development of
Cross, T. L., Gust-Brey, K., & Ball, P. B.
observations of students to monitor social-emotional learning. GCT
(2002). A psychological autopsy of
both intellectual and social-emotional
the suicide of an academically gifted
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continued on page ??
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gifted child today 29